1
Q
Who was Liu Shaoqi?
A
- joined CCP 1921
- leader of Comm forces in Manchuria + northern China
- 1956, First Vice-Chairman of CCP
o staunch Mao supporter
o spoke in favour of Great Leap Forward - acknowledged as Mao’s successor when he stepped down
o eventually opposed Mao’s policies - during Cultural Revolution, purged
- died in prison 1969 after denied pneumonia treatment
2
Q
Who was Rao Shushi?
A
- joined CCP 1925
- first worked as youth organiser before Shanghai trades organiser
- during Civil War, political commissar of Shandong Field Army
- after 1949, governor of East China region (Shanghai)
- 1953 minister in charge of Party’s organisation dept.
3
Q
Describe in brief the new integration of socialism into policy and life that the CCP announced in 1953
A
- PRC had reached stage where evonomically stable and socially/politically stable (CCP had consolidated control) and thus ‘transitional period’ could afford to be concluded, and the new transition to more hard-line socialist reform could happen
- developments uhh:
o industrial and agricultural development
o increasing collectivisation of land and industry
o need for central state planning (followed lead of USSR, eg. five year plans) - ‘general line’ adopted =
o transition would take 15 years
o emphasised that the United Front that the CCP had with the national bourgeoisie hadn’t been abandoned and they would still have key role in industrial development
4
Q
Describe the challenges presented to Mao’s control within the CCP’s system of democratic centralism
A
- even if had to present united front after decision made, still room for debate over implementation
o eg. for economic planning, debate abt how much tax landlords vs rich peasants would pay, pace of change etc.
o these differences in opinion could still clash sharply with Mao - decisions made at Politburo level were also ultimately COLLECTIVE, even if Mao held the most political weight and could steer discussions
- despite all this, Mao still had the power to bring the Party into line with his own opinions (eg. Yan’an Rectification Movement)
5
Q
Who was Gao Gang?
A
- 1949, leading CCP officual in Manchuria
o had all 4 senior posts in all 3 bodies of the PRC’s structure - 1952, head of Central Planning Commission
o responsible for First Five Year Plan (1953)
6
Q
Describe the purge of Gao Gang and Rao Shushi (1953)
A
- 1953, Gao defended Mao’s more aggressive view that pace of change should be quicker
o criticised Zhou Enlai and Liu Shaoqi for more cautious approach - as result, while believing he had Mao’s backing, w/Rao Shushi’s support tried to usurp Zhou Enlai
o Deng Xiaoping alerts Mao - Dec 1953 Politburo meeting, Mao calls Gao and Rao out for trying to establish their own ‘kingdoms’ within the PRC and participating in ‘underground activities’
o early 1954, Gao committed suicide to avoid facing further humiliation
o Rao imprisoned 1955 and died 1975 whilst still incarcerated
7
Q
Describe the relationship between Chinese intellectuals and the CCP
A
- schooling was expensive in China at the time
o so, mostly only the bourgeoisie could afford it
o thus, CCP viewed with suspicion - CCP also viewed intellectuals with suspicion, as many had studied abroad or in Western-run Chinese schools
o this meant that they had been ‘influenced’ by imperialism and Western modes of thought in the eyes of the CCP
o so, distrustful as mentality often contrary to that of the CCP and hard-line Communists - intellectuals were also used to a culture of academic freedom
o so, censorship hard for many to deal with
o so, more tension between the CCP and intellectuals - despite all this, China needed intellectuals for social and economic progression
o so, could not persecute or eradicate entirely - many intellectuals also saw hope and opportunities in the new CCP regime
o GMD years due to war and instability had been largely stagnant on an academic field
8
Q
Who was Hu Feng?
A
- Chinese literary critic and writer
o prominent member of the ‘League of Left-Wing Writers’ union - was a Marxist in all areas apart from literature and the arts -> refused to agree with the CCP’s censorship
- already viewed as a ‘dangerous free-thinker’ as his literary work had already been criticised as part of the Yan’an Rectification Movement
9
Q
Describe the ‘anti-Hu Feng’ campaign in 1955
A
- in July 1954, Hu Feng gave 300,000 word report to the Politburo on the changes in art and literature following the CCP takeover
o was extensively critical of the censorship imposed - Jan 1955, Publicity Department of the Chinese Communist Party submitted report to CCP central committee
o requested criticism of Hu Feng - May 1955, fellow writer Shu Wu submitted his correspondences with Hu, accusing him of forming anti-rev cliques
- Mao wrote a foreword to these letters and published them in the ‘People’s Daily’ newspaper
- later in May, Hu Feng arrested
o charged w/being GMD agent - campaign then went on to eradicate ‘Hu Feng elements’ and those who were deemed part of Hu’s anti-rev ‘cliques’ from Chinese society
10
Q
How many people were persecuted as a result of the anti-Hu Feng campaign in 1955?
A
- 2100 persecuted
- 92 arrested
- 72 detained
11
Q
Where did the ‘Hundred Flowers’ campaign get its name from?
A
- phrase: ‘Let a hundred flowers blossom, let a hundred schools of thought contend’
- from 3rd cent. BC (‘golden age’ of Chinese philosophy)
o was common for roving philosophers to form their own schools of thought and offer advice to any lord who would listen
12
Q
Why are the origins of the ‘Hundred Flower’ campaign’s name important?
A
- signals that Mao is supposedly open to these different ‘schools of thought’
o thus, progressive
o also gives tone of being friendly to academics and acknowledging that Mao Zedong Thought/CCP ideology cannot stand alone - sign of collaboration - could be read as positioning Mao in place of the ‘lords’ who would listen to the Chinese philosophers - subtly reinforcing his power and his choice to listen or not (?)
- return to ‘golden age’ of Chinese philosophy -> Mao had usurped other traditional elements of Chinese society, such as the Forbidden City etc. and branded them with an association with the CCP and himself -> under CCP entering new ‘golden age’ of thought?
13
Q
What was the aim of the ‘Hundred Flowers’ campaign set out by Mao?
A
that intellectuals and academics should feel free to voice criticisms of the CCP and its policies
- SPECIFIED THE PARTY, NOT HIMSELF
14
Q
Why did Mao launch the ‘Hundred Flowers’ campaign?
A
- aims of First Five Year Plan achieved a year early, however outstanding problems with collectivisation of agriculture (namely growing peasant resistance)
o as result of the resistance, members of the Politburo, particularly Chen Yun and Zhou Enlai, opposed Mao’s calls to quicken the pace of economic change
o so, Mao sought support from outside the Party by way of allowing criticisms of the Party - Mao believed CCP becoming divorced from the Chinese people (‘bureaucratism’)
o so, HFc intended as another sort of ‘rectification’ movement; Party members subject to criticism, then obliged to mend ways
o in Mao’s head, NOT intended for him - 1956, Nikita Khrushchev denounced Stalin
led to anti-Communist revolts in Poland and Hungary (USSR states)
o thus made Mao more cautious of over-censorship and brutal regime policies
o so, gave need to show that he was different from other Communist leaders
15
Q
What did Khrushchev say in his ‘secret speech’ in 1956 and why did this have such a profound effect on Mao?
A
- denounced Stalin
- criticised Stalin’s conduct as leader extensively
o said he had overplayed his role as a war hero
o criticised his cult of personality
o criticised Stalin’s propensity to overrule the collective leadership and collective decisions that were SUPPOSED to happen
o criticised purges of the Soviet party as well as purges more generally - MAO HAS DONE ALL THESE THINGS !!!!!!!!! BAD BAD IMPLICATIONS AND EXAMPLE FOR THE CHINESE PEOPLE !!! LITTLE BOY MAO WOULD’VE BEEN SHAKING IN HIS BOOTS AT THE FACT THAT THE CHINESE PEOPLE COULD HAVE THE SAME IDEAS ABOUT MAO -> LOSE CONTROL -> REVOLUTIONS AGAINST MAO
o thus came his efforts to differentiate himself from Stalin to avoid such criticism
16
Q
What was the CCP’s reaction to Khrushchev’s ‘secret speech’?
A
- Zhou Enlai, Liu Shaoqi + Deng Xiaoping spoke in favour of collective leadership
- September 1956 CCP conference removed Mao Zedong Thought from the CCP constitution
- Mao withdrew from public life for 3 months
17
Q
Describe Mao’s reaction to the opposition he faced following Khrushchev (and how it led to the HFc)
A
- moved away from ‘slavish’ replication of Soviet models of Communism and economic policy
- stressed the need for China to have its own brand of Communism/Socialism
- argued that the popular unrest (from students, workers, peasants etc. across China that was ramping up further following Khrushchev’s speech) had occurred bc the Party had become divorced from the people (‘bureaucratism’)
- thus:
o placed himself ideologically above the Party
o posed as model for democratic values
o HFc to solidify this and promote a ‘rectification’ of the Party for its bureaucratism
o also stipulated that those who strayed from the ‘correct’ path would be righted with only a “gentle breeze and mild rain” -> departure from earlier purges and brutality -> direct response to the 1956 speech
18
Q
Who was Chen Yun?
A
- originally a worker from Shanghai
- joined CCP 1924
- Politburo member 1934
- specialist in economics
19
Q
Describe opposition from within the Party to Mao’s ‘Hundred Flowers’ campaign
A
- many leading members, like Liu Shaoqi, thought encouraging criticism of the Party would undermine its authority and threaten the regime
o anti-Communist revolts in Hungary and Poland made many opponents to Mao strive for STRICTER censorship of debate and academia - Mao failed to get HFc launched in 1956 due to majority Politburo vote going against the campaign
20
Q
How did Mao overcome Party opposition to the HFc and get it launched in 1957?
A
- Feb 1957 re-did HF introduction speech but published to a wider audience
- spring 1957, 3 week train tour throughout China as a ‘wandering lobbyist’ to gain support for the HFc
o concentrated on convincing local Party officials that the campaign wouldn’t unleash an uncontrollable torrent of criticism
o as well as gaining wider support for the campaign, may have been an attempt to be seen as engaging with the people, including more Party members (against any accusations of approaching dictatorship as K accused Stalin of doing) - strategy successful -> April 1957, Politburo sanctioned HFc
21
Q
Describe criticism of the Party and Mao as part of the HFc
A
- just following the anti-Hu Feng campaign in 1955, so initial criticism at time of HFc initial 1956 ‘launch’ was wary and restrained
- when officially launched 1957, criticism flowed more freely
o attack regime for treating ppl like obedient subjects
o atk regime for developing a new privileged, bureaucratic class in the Party divorced from the people
o atk human rights abuses (esp in ‘suppression of counter-revolutionaries’ campaign 1950-51)
o atk close following of Soviet development models - Beijing University, ‘democracy wall’ displayed
o had posters critical of Party and calling for Mao to step down
o reports of student riots, strikes and attacks on CCP cadres - China’s legal sector was also heavily critical of the regime
o legal journals proposed introducing new laws of evidence for convictions
o also suggested that the CCP was bound by law in its actions and thus did not have complete power
o Chinese Political Science and Law Association (CPSLA) hosted speeches in Beijing May 1957 criticising almost every aspect of the PRC’s legal system
o Wu Defeng (vice-pres. of CPSLA in 1958) criticised Party’s ‘mass-line’ and its democratic centralism
22
Q
What was Mao’s reaction to the torrent of criticism towards him during the HFc?
A
- by mid-May 1957, attacked ‘revisionists’ in the Party for working with ‘rightists’ against the Party
- by early June, Mao ready to abandon HFc
- July, launched the ‘anti-Rightist’ campaign (lasted until 1959)
o framed the massive shift in policy as planned all along
o said HFc was to ‘expose’ rightists in China so that they could then also be purged, as well as a method of challenging bureaucracy and separation from the people in the Party itself
23
Q
Describe the ‘anti-Rightist’ campaign (July 1957-1959)
A
- reaction to criticism Mao received during HFc
- Mao published two articles
o both justified the reasons for the HFc and the anti-Rightist campaign
o June 8 (same day as the publication of the second, inner-Party document), People’s Daily newspaper published an editorial in accordance with the inner-Party doc - series of purges from Party
o Jan 1958, Chu Anping (for saying PRC should have more non-CCP representation in the national gov.)
o 1958, Zhu Rongji (working in State Planning Commission at time, but future premier)
o 1957, Zhang Bojun labelled “China’s number one rightist” and purged from his position as vice-Chairman of the CCP for being vocal during HFc
o 1959, Peng Dehuai purged for criticisms of the Great Leap Forward - independent legal system targeted
o lawyers and legal professionals transferred to other jobs
o legal journals either stopped publishing, or forced to revert to publishing only propaganda pieces - harsh punishments given to those persecuted
o internment in laogai and farms (physical labour)
o salary cuts
o working under surveillance
o some intellectuals and students publicly shot as examples - Mao set quotas for amount of rightists to be ‘exposed’ by Party officials in each area
o mirrors earlier campaigns in early 1950s, like ‘Suppression of Counter-Revolutionaries’ campaign (1950-1951) and the ‘Five Antis’ campaign - many driven to suicide due to mental pressure
24
Q
What was the official CCP definition of a ‘rightist’?
A
anyone who:
- challenged one-party rule
- challenged state-run collectivisation
- appeared to favour capitalism
- HOWEVER !!!!!!!
o though there was an ‘official’ definition of ‘rightists’, it was intentionally vague
o thus, persecution was often arbitrary and centred around meeting a quota or settling personal grudges -> increased randomness and terror -> control
NOTE: though targets mostly consisted of intellectuals, it was not limited to them - cadres, teachers, employees etc. were also vulnerable to persecution during the campaign
25
How many people were persecuted as part of the anti-Rightist campaign in total?
- official sources say nearly 553,000
o however, this number does not include those also branded as 'counter-revolutionaries', 'centre-rightists' or 'anti-socialist elements'
- hence, actual number has been estimated at anywhere between 1 and 3 million
26
What were the names of the two articles that Mao published as part of his launch of the anti-Rightist campaign (1957-59)?
'Things Are Beginning to Change' (mid-May, but finished June 11)
'Muster Our Forces to Repulse the Rightists' Wild Attacks' (inner-Party document, June 8)
27
When did Mao announce he was to step down from his role as the Chairman of the PRC (aka State Chairman)?
late 1958
28
Who replaced Mao as State Chairman in late 1958?
Liu Shaoqi
29
How significant was Mao's resignation as State Chairman in late 1958?
- not very significant
- the position of State Chairman was merely a figurehead role, besides its importance for denoting status within the PRC
o eg. Liu Shaoqi's elevation to the position marked him out as Mao's successor and set out a smooth path for his accession after Mao's death
- Mao also still retained his position as the CCP Chairman -> the ACTUALLY important role
o thus maintained his power over the ideological direction of the Party
- also said that he would return to the position anyway if China was 'urgently in need'
- however was significant in the sense that those calling for Mao to step down got what they wanted, and thus criticism and ill-will towards the CCP on his account likely relaxed a little bit
30
Describe Mao's political position within the CCP in the years following 1958 (up until 1962)
- Great Leap Forward failure placed his leadership under severe strain
- CCP deeply divided by 1962
- Mao's prestige suffered
o pushed further outside of involvement in day-to-day administration of China than ideal
31
Describe how Mao stabilised the Chinese economy following 1949
- withdrew Jiang's 'golden yuan' and replaced it with the remninbi currency
o translates to 'People's Currency'
o 1 new yuan = 10000 old yuan
o 1951, also withdrew separate currency circulating in Manchuria
o until foreign trade opened up more, the value of the renminbi was pegged to the US dollar
- ran budget surplus
o ruthless cuts to government spending, including public healthcare, military expenditure, administrative costs etc.
o funding achieved via the sale of gov bonds, as well as 'patriotic savings' campaigns + 'voluntary' contributions to the PRC
o 'voluntary' bc of fear of denunciation for being a 'bad' communist if didn't donate
o savings further stimulated by deliberate low supply of consumer goods
- faith in economy re-instilled via announcement of basket prices, as well as dropping interest rates a LOT
o 1950, brought down to 18% from 70% (Dec 1949)
o 1951, brought to 3%
- made sure balance of payments in credit
o limited imports as much as humanly possible
o focused on exporting and solidifying national trade networks
32
What were the four groups of people that were classified as part of the 'people' more generally?
- peasants
- industrial workers
- petit urban bourgeoisie
o small-earners in towns/cities, eg. artisans + shopkeepers
- national bourgeoisie
o factory owners etc.
o not connected to global elite (eg. factories run only by Chinese ppl and with weaker links to USA, Western trade etc.), so they're acceptable
o needed help of these for industrial development of China, so couldn't afford to alienate
33
Describe the propaganda value of the PRC's new emblem/insignia, national anthem and currency in 1949
EMBLEM/INSIGNIA
- had a ring of rice and wheat grains encircling the emblem
o north and south China had different traditional crops - symbolised unity and solidarity between ALL Chinese people
o also symbolised that the peasantry were responsible ultimately for holding Chinese society and China together
- five stars
o same as on Chinese flag - represented the CCP and then the four groups within the 'people'
- forbidden city palace
o Mao had set up gov there -> linking back to traditional China gave CCP regime a sense of authority and long-standing relevance
- gear
o industrial workers' importance for PRC
NATIONAL ANTHEM
- lyrics centred on the idea of 'continuing revolution' and unification of the people under the CCP when faced with a common enemy
- again links to old China when referring to a 'new Great Wall' built from Chinese 'flesh and blood'
o same implications as before
o also solidifies that the PEOPLE own the traditions and history of China, not anyone else
CURRENCY
- renminbi (People's Currency)
- had images of peasant and industrial labourers
o signified a shift from money being a symbol of the bourgeoisie and wealth to being a symbol of the people and their hard work for the nation
34
When did the collectivisation of land begin in China?
1953
35
Why did Mao wait until 1953 to begin land collectivisation?
- in 1949, still consolidating control
o thus, needed broad (peasant) support
o land reform in 1950 centred around the redistribution of individual plots of land from landlords to peasantry (Agrarian Reform Law)
o however, meant that production low on private farms as peasants tried to avoid doing well financially, as would be accused of capitalism etc. -> collectivisation va resoudre ce probleme
- by 1953, CCP control had been sufficiently consolidated, and did not have to rely on the utmost support of ALL the peasantry to maintain power
o so, could afford to implement policies that contributed more to the long-term, such as collectivisation
36
What was collectivisation?
when small, peasant-owned farms were grouped together into larger collectives
- peasants' resources and labour pooled
- Mao believed would result in increased agricultural productivity and the further establishment of a communist social environment amongst the peasantry (working for collective good)
- modelled after Stalin's policies of collectivisation
37
What was an 'APC' (1952-53 context)?
- Agricultural Producers' Cooperative
- groups of 30-50 peasant households
o pooled land and labour
o could share the cost of new capital/machinery
o yields theoretically would inc.
o worked on collective farms
- peasant families retained private ownership of their land within the APC
- any profit at the end of the year was shared between households in the APC based on the share of land they held in the total collective farm
o eg. a household that held land accounting for 20% of the whole collective farm would receive 20% of the profits
o meant that wealthier peasants still took the majority of the profits
38
Describe the implementation of collectivisation in China from 1951 to 1956
- 1951, cautious first steps
o mutual-aid teams grouped up to 10 peasant households
o these shared labour, tools and animals
o only poor peasant households involved in the scheme
- 1952-53, first APCs introduced
- 1955 summer, 'higher stage' APCs introduced
o grouped 200-300 households
o generally larger than a single village
o when wealthier peasants resisted joining an APC, state loans to their farms withheld, as well as given harsh punishments if severe resistance
- 1956, Mao claims collectivisation achieved 15 years in advance and puts breaks on APC expansion for 18 months
39
Describe (wealthy) peasant resistance to joining 'higher stage' APCs (as well as grain requisitioning) and how the government responded
RESISTANCE
- hoarded grain
- slaughtered their animals rather than share
- attacks on cadres in charge of collecting requisitioned grain
RESPONSE
- beatings
- imprisonment
- torture
- mock execution
o the one being mock executed wouldn't know it was just a mock
o would go through whole process as if real
o at end, when alive, enough terror instilled that probably would never even think of repeating the rebellion
- even lower allocation of grain for the rebels' own use (higher proportion requisitioned -> exacerbated starvation and food-based hardship)
o TERRIBLE in 1954 as a result of the bad harvest, as gov kept a flat rate of requisitioning throughout -> famine in some areas
40
What was the difference between a 'higher stage' APC and a regular APC?
- HSAPCs much bigger -> 200-300 households instead of 30-50
- HSAPCs had more emphasis on the 'labour-share' for dividing profits
o levelled the playing field in terms of profit for poorer peasants who held less land, and thus made wealthier peasants take less of the share
41
Describe Mao's policies concerning the pace of collectivisation from 1953-55
- Mao initially pushed for rapid economic development
o led to a 'rash advance' where many peasants were forced into poorly prepared cooperatives
- 1953, saw the poor prep and called for a slowdown to economic change
- however, wealthy peasants sold land and hired labour when slowdown stabilised the economic environment again
o meant (under the 'higher stage' APC rules) that could take the biggest share of profits again
- 'spontaneous tendencies towards capitalism'
- 1954, Mao spoke against the 'rash retreat' and inc pace again
o led to (wealthy) peasant resistance
o grain requisitioning attempts -> riots
- 1955, Mao said no further advancement of APCs for 18 months
42
How many peasant households belonged to APCs in July 1955 vs Jan 1956?
July 1955 = 17 million households in APCs
Jan 1956, ~75 million households in APCs (not all willingly)
43
What percent of the peasant households in China still farmed privately by the end of 1956?
3%
44
Describe the results of collectivisation in China
- CCP control in the countryside was strengthened
- little impact on agricultural production (data for 1953-1957 period)
o ag production grew only 3.8%
o last year (1956-57), grain production grew 1%
- costs greatly outweighed the benefits
45
What was the First Five Year Plan?
- a five-year plan spanning the period 1953-57
o modelled closely after the Soviet five-year plans
- aimed to increase the output of 'heavy' industries in China, eg:
o iron
o steel
o energy
o transport
o communications
o industrial machinery
o chemicals
- note that the production of consumer goods are NOT high priority
46
What did Mao (aim to) do to push China towards self-sufficiency?
- First Five Year Plan
o no reliance on foreign countries for g/s from 'heavy' industries
o industrial development in general became a priority
- wanted to keep balance of payments firmly in credit
- foreign-owned businesses nationalised
- foreign trade kept at a minimum
47
How did the Chinese government facilitate industrial development during the First Five Year Plan?
- $300 million loan from USSR
- 'patriotic savings' campaigns
o ppl exhorted to save in State banks -> used to finance
o saving stimulated by the lack of priority and thus lessened production of consumer g/s -> less choice, less reason to spend, more to save
- grain requisitioning and extremely cheap 'government procured quotas' for grain
o used to feed growing urban population whilst keeping their wages down -> important for cheap exports that would be thus easier to produce at great quantities, and bought internationally
48
Describe the results of the First Five Year Plan
- 1956, gov announced that the targets for industry had been met 1 year early
o even if local officials had inflated figures, the ffyp was still incredibly successful in its achievements for industrial growth
o by the actual end of the ffyp (1957), these sectors had exceeded their targets for the most part
- industrial investment in capital and fixed assets nearly doubled
- gov control over industry increased as withheld State funds to convince owners of private firms to sell them to the state or convert them into joint enterprises under state control
- by 1956, ~67.5% modern industrial firms state owned
o 32.5% joint ownership
o no privately owned firms
- handicraft industries organised into cooperatives
o included 91.7% of all handicraft workers by 1956
- industrial production increased at an average annual rate of 18.7% 1953-1957
- national income grew at a rate of 9% a year
- 1952-1957, China's urban population grew 30%
49
Compare the 1952, ffyp target, and 1957 production of coal (millions of metric tonnes)
1952
- 68.50 million metric tonnes
ffyp target
- 113 million metric tonnes
1957
- 130 million metric tonnes
production nearly DOUBLED 1953-57
50
Compare the 1952, ffyp target, and 1957 production of steel (millions of metric tonnes)
1952
- 1.35 million metric tonnes
ffyp target
- 4.12 million metric tonnes
1957
- 5.35 million metric tonnes
production nearly QUADRUPLED
51
Compare the 1952, ffyp target, and 1957 production of cement (millions of metric tonnes)
1952
- 2.86 million metric tonnes
ffyp target
- 6 million metric tonnes
1957
- 6.86 million metric tonnes
production MORE THAN DOUBLED
52
Compare the 1952, ffyp target, and 1957 production of electrical power (billions of kWh)
1952
- 7.26 bn kWh
target
- 15.90 bn kWh
1957
- 19.34 bn kWh
production MORE THAN DOUBLED (x2.66...)
53
Compare the 1952, ffyp target, and 1957 production of locomotives (units)
1952
- 20
target
- 200
1957
- 167
though didn't meet target, came close and still raised production by roughly x8 (eightfold)
54
Compare the 1952, ffyp target, and 1957 production of machine tools (units)
1952
- 13734
target
- 12720
1957
- 28000
production OVER DOUBLED
- target lower than 1952 as likely an increased focus on the quality of tools w/Soviet help
55
Give some of the problems with the First Five Year Plan
- many new urban workers from the countryside were illiterate and lacked technical skills
o thus, could not read instructions for machinery, nor maintain it
o so lost much expensive modern equipment through damages, improper installation and lack of maintenance
- generally an emphasis on quantity produced rather than quality
o so outcomes may not necessarily be indicative of the depth of industrialisation and preparing its long-term benefits
- extensive bottlenecks and bureaucratic delays when State planners lacked knowledge of basic manufacturing procedures
o thus misallocation of resources, excessive deliberation etc.
- competition for scarce resources between State and private firms, as well as between entire industries
- relied a decent amount on Soviet aid
o thousands of Soviet technical advisers sent
o Five Year Plans were conceptualised by the Soviet Union first, and China's closely followed them
o $300 million loan given to China -> HOWEVER was to be paid back with food, and with interest (led to harsh grain requisitioning)
- placed a LOT of strain on the rural APCs
o grain requisitioning
o many rural labourers moved to the cities to chase higher living standards and job security (iron rice bowl) -> didn't really happen
o as the ffyp was designed to work in tandem with collectivisation, the struggle that collectivisation went through may be considered a failure of the ffyp
56
What percentage of gov investment was directed to the cities vs the rural areas 1953-57?
cities = 88%
rural = 12%
ABYSMAL seeing as 84% of the Chinese population lived in the countryside
57
Why didn't peasant migrants to the city during the First Five Year Plan (chasing higher living standards and an escape from the countryside hardship during the period) thrive in cities as hoped?
- moved without permits
o thus were forced to take unhygienic, low-paid jobs and accommodation
- 1955, hukou extended to the countryside to curb migration
o many peasants forced to return to the countryside anyway
58
Describe the social impacts of collectivisation on the peasantry
- undermined trad. family unit
o People's Communes established to take care of the young and old, as well as provide meals (communal kitchens) so that viable members of the household could work
o head of the family lost economic control when State technically owned their land via the APCs
- women away from household more often
o encouraged to work by both the 'work points' system as payment for labour, as well as drives by orgs like ACWF and the gov more generally
- handicraft industries (traditionally rural) all but wiped out
o women at home less, so less time to work on these, so disappeared pretty much
- those unable to contribute to labour as much as others ostracised in rural society
o eg. heavily pregnant women who still ate from the People's Commune kitchens despite not working in the fields
- more peasants left the countryside to go to cities (replenished in part in 1955 when hukou expanded)
59
What percentage of rural women worked in agriculture by 1957?
60%
60
add GLF etc. stuff when covered in class
61
Describe the social change that came as a result of the anti rightist and class enemies campaigns, as well as rectification more generally between 1952 and 1962
- by 1953, landlords eradicated as a class
- secret societies repressed
- crime significantly reduced
- by 1956, no privately owned firms
o all state owned or combination of public and private ownership
- 1956, Eight Party Congress adopted resolution that class struggle no longer pertinent
o bc socialism's implementation going So well
o but when Mao's GLF faced opposition from Party members like Deng Xiaoping, Chen Yun and Liu Shaoqi, identified as new sort of 'class enemy'
o thus, shift in CCP's focus on class struggle in its prop./messaging from being econ class struggle, to being ideological and political class struggle
62
What did Mao consider the 'three mountains' that needed to be moved to achieve equality for women?
- family
- ideology
- society
63
What did Mao say in regards to women deserving equal rights in society?
"women hold up half the sky"
64
Why was there a drive in the early 1950s to equalise women's rights?
- patriarchal systems where women were regarded as the property of men (eg. patrilocal system) were closely tied to feudalism
o against communism
- women were a HUGE part of the population - by neglecting to envelop them in the labour force was to lose out on mass amounts of productive potential for the economy
- theoretically gains the CCP further control over China through the support of women
65
What was the ACWF?
- All-China Women's Federation
- founded in 1949
- aim = promote gov policies towards women
o given a mandate by gov to conduct 'woman work' (implementing laws concerning women's rights, improving women's education and health, mobilising women)
66
What hampered the ACWF in its work?
lack of state funds and status in society
- saying: "The labour union has power, the Youth Federation has money, but the Women's Federation has neither"
67
Describe the ACWF's efforts to improve women's literacy in the countryside
- 1949, ~85% Chinese adults (men + women) illiterate
- 3 mass ACWF campaigns to encourage women to go to evening classes in their villages
o 1952 campaign
o 1956 campaign
o 1958 campaign
- outcome = by 1958, 16 million more women became literate in the countryside
68
Describe the impact of the mobilisation of women on women
- in part, more economic equality
o however, gender-pay gaps existed within the 'work points' system still
- still expected to do all the housework - no push for equality in that sense
o women who tried to maintain their role as housewives were referred to as 'family women' (disappointed tone) and put under pressure to go into work
69
List the items in the 1950 Marriage Law
- infanticide banned
- minimum marriage age raised to 20 for men, 18 for women
- unmarried, divorced or widowed women given the same property ownership rights as men
o if married though, didn't
- keeping concubines was banned
- dowries banned
- arranged marriage banned
the 1950 Marriage Law also emphasised:
- women's right to invoke divorce proceedings (though it did not grant this right)
- the "duty" of spouses to "look after each other" and "strive jointly for the welfare of the family"
o did not enforce male participation in domestic work
- the "feudal" nature of the old marriage system
70
Describe Chinese reception of the 1950 Marriage Law
- Mao himself did not technically obey the concubinage section of the law
o kept PLA 'dance troupe' of women, treated as imperial concubines
- regarded as the 'divorce law' by peasants and faced massive resistance from both peasant men AND THE CCP CADRES (sometimes)
o many women killed or committed suicide due to violence from spouses (or even mothers in law) when attempted to exercise right to divorce
o bc more labour per household gave more money (both b4 and after APCs implemented), as well as misogyny etc.
- matchmakers still used even if arranged marriage banned
- gifts replaced dowries
- divorce hard to obtain, and divorced women ostracised
- some success
o female infanticide rates fell (not eradicated)
o average marriage age gradually rose during the 1950s
o ACWF 'Marriage Problems Teams' gradually succeeding in breaking down resistance to divorce in part
71
How many women killed as a result of marriage-related issues by 1952 after the Marriage Law (1950)?
11500
72
Describe the implementation of the 1950 Marriage Law
- cadres reluctant to enforce
- enforcement would also have been Very expensive due to all the administrative costs required
o thus, enforcement was relatively lax
- 1953, following the increasing violence against women who tried to exercise the rights given by the law, Party conducted a campaign to raise awareness for the new law and normalise it more
o cadres reluctant to openly challenge peasant resistance (personal qualms as well as the fact that CCP needed peasant support for collectivisation in 1953 and thus couldn't oppose too heavily)
- ACWF sent in 'Marriage Problems Teams' to break down resistance to divorce and open discussion of marital problems
o saw gradual success
73
Describe the ACWF's efforts regarding women's healthcare
- in 1949, childbirth yielded high mortality rates due to poor midwifery practices
- between 1949 and 1959, number of trained midwives increased
o trained to use much safer birthing practices than prior
- ACWF also worked to raise awareness and implement basic sterilisation procedures
74
Describe the CCP's policies and attitudes regarding the use of contraception
- initially, whilst CCP still pushing for population growth to strengthen China's long-term productive potential etc., family planning discouraged
o contraceptive imports banned
o abortion restricted
o medical sterilisation restricted
- after 1953 (due to more thorough economic planning - ffyp, collectivisation etc.), the population growth's problems in terms of food supply came into focus
o 1954, state pharmaceutical company began producing contraceptives
o 1955, CCP adopted pop control as part of policy
- pop control after 1955 + the push for family planning/contraceptives post-1953 slow to adopt by peasants
o traditionally had large families
o APCs more towards labour-share for profits -> less children = less labour = resistance to adopt the policy
o bc Mao posed as defender of peasantry, reluctant to oppose their scruples surrounding pop. control
75
Which law gave women equal voting rights with men?
1953 Electoral Law
76
Describe the CCP's aims for women's participation in politics
- wanted at least 1/4 of elected bodies to be women
- encourage women to take on provincial-level leadership roles in villages/counties
o ACWF tasked with this
77
Describe the outcome of the ACWF's efforts to mobilise women politically
- efforts resisted by both peasant men and women (women scared would ruin reputations)
- over time, succeeded in raising female political participation at local level through the use of:
o neighbourhood committees
o peasant associations
o co-operatives in rural areas
- long-term success of the ACWF limited however
o in 1994, still only 32.6% of county officials were women
o at national level (1994):
[] 10.7% officials female
[] 3/40 ministers in central gov were female - SAME AS IN 1949
78
1949, how many women were elected to the Central People's Political Consultative Conference?
69 women elected - made up for 10.4% of the total membership
79
How many female deputies were elected in 1953 to the National People's Congress?
12% of the total amount of deputies
80
Which women were appointed to the PRC's government in 1949, and in which capacities?
- Song Qingling
o one of six vice-chairpersons in the Central People's Government
- Li Dequan
o PRC's first Minister of Health
o member of the Revolutionary Committee of the GMD
- Shi Liang
o first Minister of Justice
o in office 1949-1959
o member of the China Democratic League
HOWEVER !!! no women gained prominent positions in the CCP hierarchy (all women from other parties)
81
Who was Song Qingling?
- 1/6 chairpersons in Central People's Government
- Song Meiling's (Jiang's wife) elder sister
- leading member of the Revolutionary Committee of the GMD (left-wing group aligned with the CCP)
82
women's rights under Qing + Jiang
83
Describe the state of healthcare in China prior to 1949 and the CCP takeover
- 19th cent. Western missionaries had brought Western-style medicine for first time
- these missionaries' churches and charities founded in China also were responsible for building many of the hospitals and medical schools in Chinese cities
- under GMD, growing number of trained doctors
o medical care in cities improving
o traditional Chinese herbal medicines still available, but discouraged by modernisers and the GMD regime in preference of modern medicine
o HOWEVER, the medical provision under GMD only really accounted for cities - those in the countryside continued to suffer medically from endemic disease, high (infant) mortality rates etc.
84
What kind of approach did the CCP take to improving healthcare in China and why?
preventative rather than curative
- lack of hospitals and trained doctors following the sustained conflict
- need for state funding to go towards industry etc. instead
85
What was the 'Patriotic Health' campaign? (1952)
- welfare campaign launched in 1952
- used street + neighbourhood committees to mobilise the people, especially in cities
- aimed to improve sanitation and hygiene
o reduce incidence of endemic diseases (eg. cholera, typhoid disease, scarlet fever)
86
Describe the campaigns under the umbrella of the 'Patriotic Health' campaign (1952) and their success
- improvements for drinking water quality
o pushed to chemically treat human waste before it was used as fertiliser (common in rural China)
o pushes to dig deeper wells (cleaner water, no pesticides etc. mixed in)
- pest-eradication campaigns
o included flies, mosquitoes, fleas, bedbugs and rats
o dogs denounced as public health threats as well as symbolic of bourgeoisie -> efforts to eradicate dogs in cities
o pests presented to people as a new enemy to continue the revolution against -> unite people under CCP
o in Beijing, every citizen had to prove they killed 1 rat per week -> brought tails as proof to local police station -> those who failed given a 'black flag'
[] led to black market for rats' tails and actually increased the rat population via breeding them to supply more tails
SUCCESS:
- some success, as death rates gradually declined
- however, wasted resources
- also depended on coercion in part
87
Describe the provision of medical healthcare in both cities and rural areas
CITIES
- industrial workers in large firms had access to hospitals reserved for their use
RURAL CHINA
- three-tier healthcare system
- village level
o paramedics worked from village health centres
- township
o health centre
o give out-patient care
o has limited number of beds for in-patient care (less serious cases)
- county level
o hospitals
o staffed by fully-trained doctors
o beds for serious cases of in-patient care
o THESE WERE EXPENSIVE !!! thanks to the CCP's low healthcare budget, took time for rural areas to see improvements
88
What percentage of the State budget did healthcare occupy in 1952?
1.3%
89
add GLF stuff when done in class
A Level History AQA
flashcards
Decks in class (19)
# Cards
-
China - Chapter 1102
-
China - Chapter 286
-
China - Chapter 389
-
China - Chapter 40
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China - Chapter 50
-
China - Chapter 60
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The Political Nation, socioeconomic and religious context44
-
James I - character and court14
-
James I - Crown finance + attempts at reform39
-
James I - religion and religious division25
-
James I - Parliaments (1604-1624)32
-
Charles I - character and court10
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Charles I - Crown finances + attempts at reform11
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Charles I - religion and religious division (1625-29)4
-
Charles I - Parliaments (1625-29)29
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Charles I - state of Crown/Parliament relations by 16296
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Charles I - religious division by 164027
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Charles I - political divisions (Personal Rule + Short P)47
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Charles I - the Long Parliament, Pym and the outbreak of the Civil War27
