1
Q
urbanisation
A
the increase in the proportion of the population living in urban areas
2
Q
urban growth
A
the increase in the total population of a town or city
3
Q
urban expansion
A
the increase in size or geographical footprint of a city
4
Q
what are cities important for
A
-the organisation of economic production
-the exchange of ideas and creative thinking
-social and cultural centres
-centres of political power and decision making
5
Q
3 causes of urban growth
A
-natural population growth
-industrilasation
-rural to urban migration
6
Q
2 categories of reasons for rural to urban migration
A
push factors
pull factors
7
Q
4 processes of urbanisation
A
-urbanisation
-suburbanisation
-counter urbanisation
-urban resurgence
8
Q
suburbanisation
A
the decentralisation of people, employment and services towards the edges of an urban area.
9
Q
counter urbanisation
A
population movement from large urban areas to smaller urban settlements and rural areas
10
Q
urban resurgence
A
population movement back to urban areas
11
Q
why does suburbanisation usually occur
A
when wealthier people decide to move away for a better quality of life
12
Q
issues with suburbanisation
A
-it can lead to inner city areas becoming deprived
-house prices in surburbs increase
-building on green belts
13
Q
push factors of counter urbanisation
A
-pollution
-large industrial areas
-economic decline
-overcrowding
14
Q
pull factors of counter urbanisation
A
-clean air
-more space
-better value housing
15
Q
advantages of counter urbanisation
A
-forces inner city urban areas to regenerate or face collapse
-helps reduce overcrowding and housing shortages
16
Q
disadvantages of counter urbanisation
A
-higher rural house prices
-more traffic and congestion
-conflict between elderly population and new residents
17
Q
pull factors of urbanisation
A
-opportunities
-jobs
-better healthcare
-education
18
Q
disadvantages of urbanisation
A
-increase in unplanned housing
-poor likely to be exploited
-large social divides
- water pollution increased
19
Q
when does urban resurgence usually occur
A
when schemes put in place to improve the quality of life are put in place to economically grow and regenerate the urban area
20
Q
megacities
A
urban areas with a very high population with over 10 million people
21
Q
world cities
A
cities that have significant political and economic influence on a global scale
22
Q
social affects of urbansiation
A
-multiculturalism and increasing diversity
-improves access to different jobs,healthcare, eductaion due to larger investments within cities
-access to wide range of jobs increases quality of life
23
Q
economic effects of urbanisation
A
-shift in employment from primary sector to tertiary sector
-areas where people have migrated away from the economy may decline because less people are contributing to the economy
-economic inequalities
24
Q
deindustrilisation
A
the long term decline of a countrys manufacturing and heavy industrys
25
key drivers to industrialisation
-reduced need for labour
-reduced demand
-globalisation of manufacturing
-increased costs
26
decentralisation
the process of urban developments away from he city centre
27
rise of the service economy
an economy where the dominant source of economic growth is through providing services rather than goods
28
drivers of the tertiary sector expansion
rising affluence
technological change
29
primary sector
natural resource exploitation eg. mining, farming, oil extraction
30
secondary sector
manufacturing goods
eg. making clothes, vehicles, appliances
31
tertiary sector
providing services
eg. call centres, banking
32
quaternary sector
providing information
eg. teaching, stockbrokers
33
urban regeneration polices
1980s - 1998 urban development corporations (UDCs)
1981- present enterprise zones
1982 - present government grants
1992 - 2008 english partnerships
1990s - present new initiaives
34
urban development corporations
1980s-1998
-UDCs created policies to ensure effective use of land, develop industry, provide social housing facilities and overall enhance the quality of deteriorated areas
35
enterprise zones
1981- present
enterprise zones are specific areas of land with economic incentives such as tax breaks and government support that aim to entice business to incest into an area that would benefit from business
36
government grants
1982 - present
the government created a number of grants that entice private investors to develop and regenerate urban areas.
the urban development grant and urban regeneration grant merged into the city grant (1988) allowing development plans to bypass local authorities making developments easier to go ahead
37
english partnerships
1992 - 2008
-english partnerships was a national regeneration agency that aimed to develop derelict and underutilised areas. they had certain powers to enable regeneration and development such as issue a compulsory purchase order which meant land could be bought without consent of the owner therefore removing barriers to development
38
new initiatives
1990s - present
-several new bottom up schemes have been employed in the uk where the local community is encouraged to be a part of the regeneration process and therefore benefit from it eg city challenge, the single regeneration budget and european funding programmes
39
a citys urban form refers to
the physical characteristics of a city
40
physical factors which can influence urban form
-natural resources
-water
-topography
-climate and land types
41
human factors which can influence change of urban form
-wealth and development
-planning
-patterns of growth
-economic activities
-past developments
42
factors that urban form changes over time in response to
-population
-environment
-economy
-technology
-polices
43
contemporary characteristics of megacities
-urban sprawl
-edge cities
-high density living and intensification of urban centres
-residential differentiation
-redevelopment and conservation
-infrastructure
-transit orientated development
-car dominated urban form
-environmental problems
44
infrastructure
the physical and related organisational structure needed for society to operate
45
new urban ladnscapes
-mixed use developments
-fortress developments
-cultural heritage quarters
-edge cities
-gentrified areas
46
mixed use developments
-mixed use developments blend residential, commercial, cultural, institutional and industrial uses which are interconnected physically and also functionally
47
fortress developments
fortress developments are where areas are secured off from public acess and only certain people with permission are allowed to enter
48
cultural heritage quarters
cultural heritage quarters are large areas within an urban an urban area that are recognised as having particular cultural importance
49
edge cities
an area of business, shops and entertainment services on the outskirts of a city usually by major transport links
50
gentrified areas
gentrification is a form of inner city regeneration often involving the movement of affluent usually young middle class people into traditionally run down areas
51
the concept of the post modern city
the idea that contemporary cities are changing their industries, architectual style and land use in order to keep up with socioeconomic changes in society
52
usual characteristics of post modern western city
-characterised by unusual architecture
-tertiary and quaternary industries are the main sectors of the economy
-fragmented urban forms rather than things being concentrated in one area
-a large amount of socioeconomic inequality exists
53
gentrification
the process of housing improvement slowly associated with low income groups being displaced and more affluent people moving in.
54
reasons for gentrification
-the rent gap
-a changing household composition and demographic
-proximity to inner city and employment opportunities
-reputation of cultural and art
-may be encouraged by local council
55
benefits of gentrifictaion
-rise in general price level of propensity and increasing number and range of services
-increased tax revenue for local authority
56
costs of gentrification
-low income groups get priced out
-tension between new and old residents
-threat to the community
57
CBD
-this is where commercial, financial and business activities are concentrated
-age of buildings usually decreases in increasing distance from the city centre
58
inner city
-in LICs high cost residential areas are usually located here
-in HICs the high land price means developments are densley compacted
-the inner city is also where industrial sites are usually located
59
suburban areas
in HICs they are often higher in value
-effective planning means these areas often have large open spaces and houses are usually larger and more expensive
-in LICs areas on the edge of cities tend to have very poor quality housing that have been constructed with little or no regulations
60
social segregation
where groups of people live apart from one another or from the larger population due to factors such as wealth, ethnicity, religion or age
61
strategies to manage urban areas
-city minimum wages
-fair rent and housing policies
-recognising informal housing issues
-encouraging multicultralism
62
categories of urban polices
-retraining
-economic policies
-environmental policies
63
reurbanisation
the large scale government backed movement of people into the city centre as part of regeneration
64
trends in reurbanisation
-increase in the construction of centrally located residential areas
-increase in studentification
-rapid population increase
growth of 24 hour culture and central entertainment districts
-growing effectiveness of public transport networks
65
microclimates
when urban areas create their own climate and weather
66
causes for microclimates
-changes to land surface eg concrete
-fewer trees that prevent sun for being absorbed from its shade
-dark rooftops and dark pavement
-tall buildings reflecting and absorbing sunlight
-car engines and factory exhausts producing heat
-fewer plants for evapotranspiration
-poor buildings insulation release heat at night
67
two levels in microclimate domes
urban canopy- processes acting in the spaces between buildings and roof top level
-urban boundary- processes acting above roof level and extends downwind as a plume in the surrounding rural areas
68
urban climate characteristics
-high pollution levels
-fog and photochemical smog
-more precipitation
-lower relative humidity
-more cloudy
-increased thunderstorms
-lower wind speeds with the exception of tunneling effect
-pressure gradients
-greater diurnal tempreture range
69
the urban heat island effect
a phenomenon where the characteristics of urban areas and the activity within them cause the areas to produce and retain more heat than surrounding areas
70
tempreture sinks
found above green spaces and water
71
tempreture plateaus
occur in areas within the same land use
72
tempretre cliffs
occur when tempretures changes rapidly from one land use to another
73
main causes of the heat island effect
-absorption of heat by urban surfaces
-heat from human activities
-less evapotranspiration
-air pollution
74
why is there more precipitation in urban areas
-urban air pollutioin results in more condensation nuclei which helps the fomration of clouds
-air is warmer leading to more precipitation
-air turbulenece amogst buildings of varying heights and heat island related convection promote the uplift of air to rise and cool below dewpoint and allowing water vapour to condense in order for precipitation to form
-dust and pollution from industry increase condensation nuclei that seed the cloud droplets
75
fog
ground level cloud
when visibility is less than 1000m
76
why do urban areas have higher levels of fog
urban areas generate large amounts od dust and pollution and these particulates act as condensation nuclei and trigger cloud formation
77
advection fog
formed when warm moist air moves horizontally over a cold surface
78
radiation (ground) fog
formed by the radiative cooling at the surface. it takes places from the top of the fog layer, mixing continues within the fog layer creating further cooling at the surface
79
conditions necessary for radiation fog
-long, clear, cloud free colf night
-shallow layer of moisture near the ground
-light winds
80
steam fog
forms when cold air moves over warm water or surface .water evapourates increasing the dew point and if mixing is sufficient becomes saturated. the colder air directly above is heated from below and rises appearing like steam
81
thunder is a result of
the sudden increase in pressure and tempreture from the lightning causing a rapid expansion of the air around it
82
why are there more thunderstorms in urban areas
due to strong urban convection as a result of heat energy building up in the atmosphere
83
how lighting forms in urban areas
strong urban convection creates an updraft of humid hot air which rises and cools and condenses rapidly. continued updrafts of warm humid air carried upwards results in the formation of cumulonimbus clouds.
air is moved by updrafts and downdrafts so water droplets increase in size. when large enough to overcome gravity the fused ice crystals will fall. as the raindroplets split in the updrafts there is an electrical discharge into the air
84
why are rural wind speeds higher
the ground is smoother
85
two key effects influencing wind in urban areas
urban canyons
venturi effect
86
urban canyons
(canyon effect)
powerful gusts of winds channeled down relatively narrow streets bordered by high rise buildings funneling and concentrating winds
87
venturi effect
how wind speed increases as it is funneled through narrowing gaps, such as between tall buildings in an urban canyon
88
turbulence occurs
around buildings
wind is deflected downwards as it hits the face of a building.wind can be deflected around the sides of the buidldings or it can flow over the top. this flow of air around buildings can create vortices
89
sources of particulates
-vehicle exhausts
-industrial activites
-construction work
90
damaging impacts of urban air quality
heart problems
headaches
tiredness
green house effect
haze
respirartory problems
acid rain
91
smog
mixture of smoke and fog
92
when does smog occur
when smoke particulates and sulphur dioxide from burning coal mix with fog
93
what is photochemical smog caused by
when particulates react with UV light from the sun
94
why does photochemical smog stay at ground level
due to a tempreture inversion. cooler air is trapped below warmer air
95
polices to reduce air pollution
-legislation
-technological improvements
-reducing congestion
-vehicle restrictions
96
-urban areas have higher rates of precipitation compared to rural areas because
-pollution- holds more condensation nuclei
-warmer air- the air holds more moisture
97
characteristics of urban drainage
-more surface run off
-less vegetation so less evapotranspiration
-urban rivers are primarily the exit for water transferred through the drainage basin but also important stores
-resivours, lakes, ponds and swimming pools are permanent stores but vulnerable to evapouration
-depression storage such as puddles
-interception storage is reduced due to replacement of vegetation by impermeable surfaces but have drains
-drainage structures have been built
98
flood hydrograph
shows how river discharge responds to storm events
99
why does discharge rise quickly on a flood hydrograph
due to rapid surface runoff
100
why does discharge fall at a slow rate on a flood hydrograph
due to base flow increasing
101
base flow
the normal flow of river derived from the through flow and ground water flow
102
hard engineering flood management
-river straightening
-natural leeves
-embankments
-diversion spillways
-river channelisation
-dredging
-dams and resivours
103
soft engineering flood magement
-afforestation
-river bank conservation
-flood plain zoning
-river restoration
104
sustainable urban drainage
systems that are designed to manage the flow of urban water sustainably. SUDs use techniques that recreate natural drainage systems so water is allowed to flow gradually through the system before being removed as quickly as possible
105
SUDs techniques
-swales
-permeable road and pavement surfaces
-infiltration trenches
-bioretention basins
-detetion basins
-rain gardens
-green roofs
106
swales
wide shallow drainage channels that are normally dry
107
infiltration trenches
grave filled drains and filter strips
108
bioretention basins
gravel or sand filtration layers beneath reed beds and other wetland habitats to collect store and filter dirty water
109
detention basins
excavated basins to act as holding ponds for water storage during flood events
110
benefits of SUDs
-slows down surface runoff and risk of flooding
-reduces risk of sewer flooding
-prevent water pollution
-recharge ground water to help drought
-provide valuable habitats for wildlife
-create green spaces
111
river restoration involves
removing all hard engineering adaptations to restore meanders, wetlands and floodplains. drainage and flood management is returned to nature
112
domestic waste
generated as a consequence of household activities
113
municipal waste
results from municipal activities and services
114
commercial waste
waste produced by businesses like offices and shops
115
animal and vegetable waste
resulting from the handling, storage, scale, cooking and serving of food
116
institutional waste
waste from institutions such as schools and hospitals
117
construction waste
mainly consists of earth, stones, concrete, bricks, timber
118
industrial waste
-vast range of substances unique to each industry
119
types of municipal solid waste
-biodegradeable waste
-recyclable materials
-inert waste
-electrical and electronic waste
-composite waste
-hazardous waste
-biomedical waste
120
two main types of waste streams
material related streams
product related streams which need further or specific treatement
121
effects of damaging disposal of waste
-loss of recyclable resources
-loss of potential resources such as compost and energy
-contamination of land and water bodies
-air pollution from burning and release of methane
--risks to human health
122
unregulated waste management
-waste illegally dumped in areas not designated for waste disposal
-significantly harmful to ecosystems
123
burial waste management
-dumpimg waste into areas designated for waste
-unsustainable as it disrupts the natural environment and many waste products take a long time to break down so a lot of space is necessary
-waste products produces gases when it breaks down like methane
124
submerge waste management
-dumping waste into oceans
-harmful environment effect such as disruption of marine life and release of harmful chemicals into water supply
125
trade waste management
-selling waste to other countries so that other countries can process it
--it could mean waste is disposed of efficiently by systems designed to manage large amounts of waste but if countries do not manage it effectively can cause environmental issues
-waste must be transported which requires energy
126
recovery waste management
-using waste products as a replacement for other products such as repurposing waste concrete into bricks for building
-recovery of waste reduces amount of waste going into landfill
127
landfill waste management
landfill is the burial of waste in hollowed out land where it is left to decompose over timw
128
advantages of landfill
-makes good use of abandoned quarries
-easily managed
-methane can be vented and used as fuel
-on reaching capacity can be sealed, top soiled and landscaped for recreational use
-cost effective and relatively safe if managed efficiently
129
disadvantages of landfill
-attracts vermin, flies and birds
-wind blow material becomes unsightly litter
-burying organic waste leads to anaerobic decay which produces methane and co2
-subsidence is common as waste degrades which can cause structural damage
-produces methane
-leachates percolating ground water can be toxic
-smell is unpleasant especially in hot weather
130
incineration
burning of waste
131
advantages of incineration
-produces energy from burning MSW
-heat, steam and ash produced are valuable resources
-requires far less land than landfill sites
-long life span
-cost effective once constructed and operational
-safe disposal of hazardous waste such as medical waste
132
disadvantage of incineration
-particulate emissions require managing
-chimney emissions can be toxic if not managed
-carbon dioxide emissions are a greenhouse gas
-not all MSW is combustible
133
recycling
reprocessing materials that can be used again
134
advantages of recycling
-door step collection sanitary and safe
-all recyclables in one bin is popular and convenient
-organic waste can be composted and sold to enrich garden soil
-more recycling means less landfill
-resource recovery implicit given reprocessing of recycled materials into new products
-supports associated niche markets such as architectural salvage
135
disadvantage of recycling
-public collection points can generate litter
-public recycling facilities require expensive, safe operation to avoid hazardous leakages such as the acid in batteries
-public resistance if separately charged
-public separation of paper , plastic, metals and garden waste may be inconvenient and prone to error
-electrical and electronic waste can contain toxic components so careful dismantling is essential
136
atmospheric pollution
contamination of the indoor or outdoor environment by any chemical, physical or biological agent that modifies the natural characteristics of the atmosphere
137
common sources of air pollution
-domestic devices such as heating and cooking
-vehicles
-industry
-fires
138
particulate pollution
where particles are suspended in the air
139
sources of particulate pollution
-volcanic dust
-dust stroms
-sea spray
-burning wood and fossil fuels
-industrial processes
140
photochemical pollution
air that contains chemicals such as nitrogen oxide which react with sunlight to produce chemical compounds such as carbon monoxide, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide, particulate matter
141
particulate pollution can cause health issues such as
respiratory problems, cardiovascular diseases and cancer
142
how does particulate pollution affect the environment
by reducing visibility, producing acid rain and contributing to climate change
143
water pollution occurs through
the discharge of waste water from industrial effluent, domestic uses, runoff, agricultural discharge and leachates
144
3 main types of waste water collection systems
-surface water drainage
-combined sewerage
-foul drainage
145
surface water drainage collects
rainwater runoff from roads and urban areas and discharges directly to local waters
146
combined sewerage collects
rainwater runoff and waste water
147
foul drainage collects
domestic waste water from premises
148
4 stages waste water treatment plants usually process sewage
-preliminary treatment - to remove grit, gravel and screen large solids
-primary treatment - to settle larger suspended organic matter
-secondary treatment - to biologically breakdown and reduce organic matter under controlled conditions
-tertiary treatment - tailored to address specified pollutants using different treatment processes
149
urban dereliction occurrs when
economic activity in urban areas declines and buildings are abandonded and run down
150
causes of urban dereliction
-deindustrialisation
-decentralisation
-natural decay and aging of buildings overtime
-social changes - areas become unpopular to live in and work in
-lack of inward investment
151
difficulties for building on brownfield sites
-sites are contaminated and may present risks to human health and the environment. decontamination is time consuming and expensive
- not all brownfield sites have physial acsess necessary for residential development
-neighbouring land might still be used for industrial purposes making it unsuitable for new homes
152
ecological footprint is
the area of land needed to provide the necessary resources and absorb the wastes generated by a community
153
things that affect the size of an ecological footprint in urban areas
-transport
-building materials
-need of the population
154
in order to be sustainable the activites within cities need to
support the current population but not in a way that damages the ability to support future generations
155
natural sustainability
considers how sucessfully the environment is managed such as the use of natural resources and ecosystems
156
physical sustainability
the ability for the citys resources to support to support current and future populations
157
social sustainability
ensuring the residents of cities have a good quality of life with acess to public services, good living conditions and leisure activities. must also be socially cohesive, people should be tolerant and respectful to each other
158
economic sustainability
the ability for a city to grow economically and its ability to continue to grow for future generations without causing any negative effects. access to ethical well paid jobs and a well funded council is needed to ensure economic growth continues
159
liveability refers to
how able a resident is to have a good quality of life
160
features of sustainable cities
-improved transport
-planned expansion - encouraging 'compact cities' rather than uncontrolled and unrestricted urban sprawl
-conserving buildings and open spaces
-carbon neutral development
161
challenges in developing sustainable cities
-political will - need for long term strategic planning
-globalisation - increased power of TNCs who also need to ac sustainably
-economic gains for all
-climate change - stimulate growth without increasing emsissions
162
strategies to develop sustainable cities
-reducing waste
-transport
-green space
-improve building efficiency
163
the most important world cities are known as
alpha cities
164
nationally important cities are known as
beta cities
165
regionally important cities are known as
gamma cities
Human Geography
flashcards
Decks in class (36)
# Cards
-
global systems and global governance123
-
contemporary environments165
-
changing places27
-
rebranding - llandudno6
-
rebranding - plymouth10
-
reimaging - dismaland7
-
clone towns - totnes7
-
gentrification - notting hill12
-
gentrification - shoreditch5
-
regeneration - brick lane15
-
regeneration - detroit10
-
urban sustainability - london27
-
urban sustainability - mumbai26
-
urban growth - bangalore11
-
urban morphology - bristol2
-
suburbanisation - milton keynes11
-
sustainable urban drainage scheme - lamb drove8
-
river restoration - cheonggyecheon river13
-
urban policy - longbridge16
-
london docklands development corporation17
-
city challenge initiative - hulme15
-
sustainable city - freiburg9
-
amsterdam10
-
los angeles6
-
antartica28
-
UN14
-
banana trade13
-
songxia9
-
great firewall of china8
-
nigeria19
-
apple14
-
uganda8
-
EU7
-
contemporary environments key words23
-
global governance key words14
-
changing places key words13
