1
Q
1) order effect
2) counterbalancing
3) demand characteristics
4) participant variables
5) ecological validity
6) ethnocentric
7) control group
A
1) participants conditions in the experiment iflunce performance e.g. tired, bored or confident
2) desling with order effects where each conditon comes first in equal measues e.g. ABBA
3) an expermental situation that communicates what is expected of them meaning there behaviour could be unconsciously affected
4) characteristisc of a participant that may affect the results e.g.intelligence
5) how well the findings of the study can be generalised into settings beyond the lab + everyday situations
6) of the same culture and country
7) base of if it is the verbs that are influening their response are affected by the questions
2
Q
Cognitive area
A
- internal mental processes e.g. mememory thinking and recounting
- comes beofre obseravtional behaviour so we process information like a computer
3
Q
L + P
1) Background
A
- Barlett conducted “war of ghosts” study which showed native American folk tale to native English speakers
- Passed down from generations from a canoe to a boat + some removed to fit cultural scheme
= memory reconstycts informstion to align with personal and cultural expectation rather than what actually happened
Conclusion = memory isn’t accurate
4
Q
L + P
1) input
2) output
3) retrieval
A
- process of entering datax for humans through senses
- process of using data after it has been retrieved e.g say it or write it down
- process in which information is located and taken out of storgae- through recognition of matching stored item with the envirnment
Sometimes cannot find of information trying to retrieve = forgotton
5
Q
L + P
1) encoding
A
- data processes in a differnt format so the memory system can recognise it
- acoustic encoding- sound so hearing memory the same way it was orginally said
- visual encoding- image so what someone looks like
- semantic encoding- meaning so thinking about the meaning of the information
6
Q
L + P
1) storage
A
- the process in which information is held and ready to be used later
7
Q
L + P :Method
1) Materials
A
- participants shown seven clips of differnt traffic accidents
- clips originally from driver’s education programme for Evergreen safety council and Seattle police department
- lengths of films from 5-30 seconds
8
Q
L + P
1) Procedure
A
- after each clip given questionaire to describe the accident then answer a series of soecific questions anout accident
- critical question about “the speed at which the cars were going when they _ each other?”
- one group given question with “hit”
- other four groups given verbs “smashed, colided, bumped and contacted”
9
Q
L + P
How many groups?
A
- each group 9 participants
- different order of films for each group
- procedure fully lasted 1h30m
10
Q
L + P
1) Standardisation procedure
A
- high consistency and internal reliability
- all participants watch thr same seven clips from the seattle police department
- all participants were given the same critical questions about the speed they think the cars were going when they ( hit, bumped, smashed, colided and contacted
11
Q
L + P
1) results
A
- the speed calculated for thr groups
- the group with the word smashed higher speed than other groups (40.8 mph)
- the group woth the word contacted lower speed than other groups (31.8 mph)
12
Q
What does Elizabeth Loftus conclude?
A
- subtle changes in the information are gained sfter thr event e.g. wording of the question would distort the orginal memory of the video
13
Q
L + P
1) Aim
A
- to see if the estimated speeds of the cars in the accident by the participants and how the wording of the question influences their answers
14
Q
L + P
1) Problems
A
- lab experiment and independent group design
- demand characteristics, low ecological validity
- more participants needed, participant variables affecting results
- 45 American student = ethnocentric so not generalisable to other countries + cultures
15
Q
L + P
1) Discussion- what results show?
A
- the form of question having a large effect on the eyewitness answer = leading question affect on accuracy of memory
Due to: response bias factors - critical word influences response e.g. smashed leads you to think of noise or high impact = higher estimated sleed thsn verb hit
So critical verb chnages a person’s perception and memory of the event
16
Q
Schema Theory
A
- specifc mental representation of everything e.g birthday fills in details of cake and friends even if not remembered
- helps us do everyday tasks efficiently as you don’t have to constantly retrieve
17
Q
How do schemas affect our memory?
A
1) guide selection of what is encoded + stored= gives and idea of what is relevent so memory has an orginised structure
2) abstract information from events- information from different events ifps only stored if there is something new or interesting about it
3) helps us to decide how to behave in a new situation- as the information that might be relevent to to the decision is stored together
4) distortion- if new information does not meet our expectations based om the schema we already have- it may be changed to fit the schema
5) Aid retrieval- because similar information is grouped together you can “search through” all the relevent information to find exactly what is needed (unconsciously)
18
Q
L + P
2) background + aim
A
- wanted to investigate the effects of the leading questions om memory
- wanted ti see if the leading question altered subjsewuent recollection
- in particular they wanted to see if such questions simply create a response bias or if they actually alter a person’s memory representation
19
Q
L + P
2) Method- design
3) Sample
A
- lab experiment using idependent group design
IV- verb given in critical question
DV- speed estimate and weather or not the broken glass was seen
+ longitudinal as conducted over a week to test enduring memory - 150 American students
20
Q
L + P
2) materials
Problems
A
- questionaire in both parts of experiment,1 minute clip containing 4 seconds of the accident itself
- ethnocentric so it cannot be generalised to other cultures and countries
- low ecological validity (as it is in a lab, wathcing video crash not an everyday action, lacks emorional realism of a car crash so mot a real reaction)
21
Q
L + P
2) Procedure- part 1
A
- participants asked to describe the accident then answer a series of specific question about the accident
- also asked a critical question about the speec
3 groups of participants - group 1- asked “how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?”
- group 2- asked “how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?”
- group 3- asked no questions about the speed of the vehicle = the control group
22
Q
L + P
2) Part 2- procedure
A
- one week later, participant asked to return to the lab and asked critical/ leading question- did you see broken glass?
- questions embedded in a list of 10 questions
- there was no broken glass but presumably, who ever thought the car was going faster, they might expect there to be broken glass
23
Q
L + P
2) who was more likely to report seeing glass?
A
- participants in the smashed conditions were significsnly more likely to report seeing broken glass than in the hit and control conditons
24
Q
L + P
2) Conclusion
A
- the use if language after the event can change our actual memory of the event itself- information at the retrieval state (language) and information at the input state (event) have been mixed up and over time, unable to distinguish between the two
- also believed that those that believed that the crash was at a higher speed ( the smashed conditon) and therefore likely to believe the crash was more severe and more likely to report seeing broken glass
25
L + P
Reliability
- L + P study focuses on the eye witness testimony is unreliable and led to the development of the protocol to prevent situation factors e.g. language by the interviewers have a negative effect on the testimony
- however, this meant that further research needs to be conducted on how to improve the reliability of the eyewitness testimony
26
Grand et al
1) memory
- context dependent memory improves recollection of information when context present at encoding and retrieval are the same
- characteristics of environment are encoded as a part of the memory trace and can be used to enhance retrieval of other information
27
Grand et al
1) Background
- smith snd veils in 2001 = environment is not important in the event, as context dependent effect on memory are reduced
- Godden and Badelry (1975 and 1998) = effects of context change in memory retrieved are much greater in recall tests than in recognition tests suggests there are differences in the retrieval process invoked two types of tests
28
Grand et al
1) What does Johnson suggest?
- Johnson suggests a variety of effects of context dependency can be explained by the source monitoring Framework e.g. individuals will vary in their ability to tell one context apart from another very similar context due to a wide variety of factors such as intelligence and attention
29
Grand et al
1) aims and hypothesis
- informational observations indicate that many students study in different conditions than those in which they will be tested
- this led to the environmental context can have a more positive effect on performance in a meaningful memory test when the test takes place in the same environment in which to be remembered material were originally studied (the matching conditions) that when the tests occurs in different environments (the mismatching conditon)
- matching has silent noisy, noisy noisy
- mismatching has silent noisy, noisy silent
30
Grand et al
1) participants
- eight members of a psychological laboratory class served as experiments as experimenters as each experimenters recruited five acquaintances to serve as participants
- there are 39 participants 17-26, 17 female and 23 male ( a result of participant omitted from the analyses)
- snowball sampling
31
Grande et al
1) procedure pt 1.
- participants arrived and briefed so the researchers described the experiments as a class project and told participants that participation was voluntary
- were told that they would be reading an article about psychomunology by Hayes 1984
- all the participants wore headphones throughout the duration of the study, regardless of their condition, participants were either tested in noisy or silent conditions
- copies of background noise, recorded during lunchtime in a university cafeteria, were made on a cassette, and were played, in noisy trials, at a moderately loud level
32
Grand et al
1) procedure
- participants were given time to read the article and the amount of the time taken to read the article was recorded
- a break approximately two minutes between the end of the study phase and the beginning of the tests was incorporated to minimise recall from short term memory
- their comprehension was tested im two ways by a recognition test and a recall test: 16 multiple choice questions and 10 short answer questions
- the short answer test always administrated first to ensure recall all information from multiple choice tests
33
Grand et al
1) results
- suggests participants in all groups spend roughly equal amount amount of time studying the material
- participants in matching conditon performed better on average in both tests
Pyschology
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