Research Methods

Answer 1

1) what the researchers intend to find out
2) precise/ testable statement on the relationship between the data and what is being measured
3) will have a significant positive or negative relationship between variable 1 and 2
4) there will be a significant positive or negative relationship between variable 1 and 2 + iv affect on dv
5) looks at the -difference- in condition or relationship between variables
6) there is no effect and no observed differences + no significant relationship between variable 1 and 2
7) not investigated but can change the outcome
8) minimised bias by seeing how well the study establishes a relationship between the variables (cause and affect only IV)
9) how much the study can be generalised beyond lab
10) operationalise each variable e.g. explain how the covariable is measures + say is positive or negitive affect of…

Question 2

1) sample
2) target population
3) population
4) representative
5) generalisable meaning

Answer 2

1) the class
2) all students in the school
3) all young people in Britain
4) if everyone in the population is represented
5) if it can be applied to real life scenarios

Question 3

Factors that affect choice of sample

Answer 3

1) Size of target population
-if the population itself is small- a few applicable people
-if the population itself is small- hard to find applicable people

2) Method used (case study, questionnaire)
-small sample size because very detailed about participants
-large sample size because easy to reproduce on a large scale

3) Time/ practical/ financial constraints + large affect on results
- each method of sampling different costs
- sample size of 30

Question 4

Research Methods used
1) self reports
2) observations
3) experiments
4) correlation

Answer 4

1)
Interviews- rating scale (1-10), structured/ unstructured/ semi- structured
Questionnaires- open/ closed questions (any answer or yes/no), likert scale (e.g. strongly agree)

2)
- covert (unaware) observations, overt (aware) observations, participant/ non-participant observations, coding frame (themes in data), behavioural categories

3)
- standardised (same), controlled, i/d/e/c variable, experimental methods (field, lab, quasi)

4)
- variable 1 vs variable 2
- obtaining data for correlation analysis

Question 5

1)
Interviews- rating scale (1-10), structured/ unstructured/ semi- structured
Questionnaires- open/ closed questions (any answer or yes/no), likert scale (e.g. strongly agree)

2)
- covert (unaware) observations, overt (aware) observations, participant/ non-participant observations, coding frame (themes in data), behavioural categories

3)
- standardised (same), controlled, i/d/e/c variable, experimental methods (field, lab, quasi)

4)
- variable 1 vs variable 2
- obtaining data for correlation analysis
ated measure design
1) definition
2) strengths
3) weaknesses
4) how to deal with 1)
Interviews- rating scale (1-10), structured/ unstructured/ semi- structured
Questionnaires- open/ closed questions (any answer or yes/no), likert scale (e.g. strongly agree)

2)
- covert (unaware) observations, overt (aware) observations, participant/ non-participant observations, coding frame (themes in data), behavioural categories

3)
- standardised (same), controlled, i/d/e/c variable, experimental methods (field, lab, quasi)

4)
- variable 1 vs variable 2
- obtaining data for correlation analysis

Answer 5

1) where participants take part in all conditions
2) good control over participant variables, few participants needed
3) order effects, condition A may be easier than condition B
4) counterbalancing

Question 6

Matched pair design
1) definition
2) strengths
3) weaknesses
4) how to deal with weaknesses

Answer 6

1) different participants in each condition and matched on an important variable then placed in two separate groups (e.g. IQ)
2) control over the participant variables, no order effects
3) lots of participants needed, time consuming
4) restrict the number of variables being tested

Question 7

Independent group design
1) definition
2) strengths
3) weaknesses
4) how to deal with the limitations

Answer 7

1) each group with different conditions
2) no order effects, less time consuming
3) no control over the extraneous variables, large sample size needed
4) randomise the groups

Question 8

Lab experiment
1) aims
2) setting
3)strengths
4)weaknesses

Answer 8

1) control the independent variable to see the effect on the dependent variables
2) artificial setting- lab
3) controlled environment (other variables little effect), reliable (lab experiment so good control)
4) low ecological validity (in a lab meaning they aware so not generalisable), demand characteristics (acting like what they think is right or what they think the researcher wants)

Question 9

Field experiments
1) aim
2) setting
3) strengths
4) weaknesses

Answer 9

1) measure behaviour in a natural environment e.g. school, streets
2) conducted outside the lab
3) high ecological validity (as it is outside a lab, this means they are unaware so the data is generalisable to real life), no demonad characteristics (acting how they think is right or how they think the researcher wants them to act)
4) not a controlled envirnment (cannot look at the affect of chaning the Independent vairable on the dependent variables)

Question 10

Quasi experiment
1) aim
2) setting
3) strengths
4) weaknesses

Answer 10

1) having different conditions of the already existing Independent variable’s effect on the Dependent variable
2) outside the lab
3) easy to gain consent, don’t have to manipulate the Independent variable so it is very ethnical
4) difficult to set up, Independent variable cannot be manipulated

Question 11

Random sampling
1) definition
2) strengths
3) weaknesses

Answer 11

1) every member of the target population had an equal chance of being selected
2) very representative as everyone has an equal chance of selection, easy to collect participants compared to other methods
3) not as representative as ought to be ( especially with small samples), cannot force participants to take part even if it is random

Question 12

Opportunity sampling (convenience sampling’)
1) definition
2) strengths
3) weaknesses

Answer 12

1) selects participants easily available from target population
2) participants unaware (covert) so more valid, easier to obtain than other methods
3) all participants have something in common (time + place), risk of small sample size

Question 13

Snowball sampling
1) definition
2) strengths
3) weaknesses

Answer 13

1) one suitable memener from target population who has aready been studies, recuits other suitable participants from the target population
2) easier to collect in some circumstances, not time consuming
3) participants have something in common (family + friends), participants are aware of the experiment

Question 14

Self-selected sampling (volunteer sampling)
1) definition
2) strengths
3) weaknesses

Answer 14

1) when people choose to be involved
2) only way of obtaining the sample in some circumstances, easier to obtain than other methods
3) something in common (time + place), want to be involved so likely have some previous knowledge about psychology

Question 15

Ethics is a balance between
BPS guide

Answer 15

• the practicalities of research that will benefit science
• our moral obligation to the to the participants

-some experiment would have been highly beneficial to psychological research but it is morally wrong e.g. forbidden experiments
-now use naturally occurring phenomenon

• used to clarify what is ethically accpetable in phycological research and have to follow

Question 16

Ethical guidelines have to follow

Answer 16

• respect
• competenece
• responsibility
• integrity

Question 17

Respect

Answer 17

Informed consent
- under 18 means consent from an adult
- vulnerable adult means consent from a responsible adult
- informed what will be done + informed consent if they can release or keep the data after the experiment
- can withdraw themselves + data from experiment at any given moment

Withdrawal
- if difficulty remove participant from the exper

Question 18

Competence

Answer 18

• seek peer review from colleagues + BPS guide
• monitor own lifestyle

Question 19

Responsibility

Answer 19

Risk of harm
- should be no more than every day life for the participants
- no physical + psychological harm
- left unchanged from how entered

Informed
- if deceived told the aim, withdrawal, results

Question 20

Confidentiality
When can be broken?

Answer 20

• keeping part of the experiment confidential
• safety of clients
• clients behaviour risking safety of others
• health, welfare, safety ( of vulnerable adults + children)

Question 21

Integrity
Only use if?

Answer 21

Deception
- should avoid
- demand characteristics

• efficiency
• dissolve deception early

Question 22

Social sensitivity
1) definition
2) advantages
3) disadvantages

Answer 22

1) topics being researched are likely to evoke strong emotional responses from participants which could have potential consequences
2) insight for personal experiences, make new policies
3) controversial, ethical issues raised

Question 23

Self report

Answer 23

• any data collected through asking people to report their thoughts, feeling, behaviour
• data collected through questionaries, interviews or observations

Questionnaires
- respondents record their own answers but the questions are predetermined

Question 24

Closed questions

Answer 24

• have a fixed number of possible answers e.g. yes or no
• quantitative data = yes or no

Question 25

Open questions

Answer 25

- allows respondents to provide their own answers - qualitative data = any answer

Question 26

Rating scale

Answer 26

- respondants asked to give an assessment on their views (1-5)

Question 27

Semantic differential scale (rating scale)

Answer 27

- measures attitudes and opinions of respondents towards object, person idea - bipolar adjectives e.g. good-bad -interest in object 1-10

Question 28

Likert scale (rating scale)

Answer 28

- measures degree of agreement or disagreement of respondent through a statement or question e.g. strongly agree, strongly disagree spectrum - set statement or question 1-5

Question 29

1) Questionnaire 2) Strengths 3) Weakness

Answer 29

1) respondents record their own answer but the questions are predetermined, structured answers 2) - easily repeated so data can be collected from a large number of respondents quickly and cheaply - respondents are more comfortable revealing personal or confidential in a questionnaire than an interview means they would have to talk face to face so it would be confrontational 3) - sample may be picked as only certain people filled the questionnaire and illustrate people who are willing to spend their time filling it - issues around reliability of the answers

Question 30

1) Closed questions 2) Strengths 3) Weaknesses

Answer 30

1) - have fixed number of possible answers - provide quantitative data (data can be counted) 2) - easy to analyse because data is quantitative meaning it is summarised using averages and graphs making it easier to draw conclusions 3) - may not permit people to express their perceived feeling so it doesn't under cover new information so the data would have low validity

Question 31

1) Open questions 2) Strengths 3) Weaknesses

Answer 31

1) allows the respondents to provide their own answers and this means that it uses qualitative data which cannot immediately be counted 2) - provide rich details of how people behave because they have free range to express themselves - allows them to evoke what they think rather than fitting in with the limited categories meaning the validity of the data collected increases 3) - difficult to affect patterns and draw conclusions due to the wide range of responses meaning the the researchers may look for trends rather than using descriptive statistics

Question 32

1) Rating scale 2) Strengths 3) Weaknesses

Answer 32

1) - respondents asked to give an assessment on their views on a scale from 1-2 where 5 represents the very positive and 1 represents the very negative 2) - responsibly objective way to represents feelings and attitudes relevant to the to the topic being researched - produces quantitative data which is easy to represent in graphs 3) - respondents avoid end of sales and often go with the middle so the feelings are not accurately represented e.g. lack validity

Question 33

1) Structured interviews 2) Strengths 3) Weaknesses

Answer 33

1) predetermined questions are delivered by the interviewed so who does not probe beyond the answers received beyond may answer questions 2) - easy to replicate - easy to analyse than unstructured interviews as answers are predetermined 3) interviewers expectation's influence's the answers the interviews give (interviewer bias)

Question 34

1) Semi- structured questions 2) Strengths 3) Weaknesses

Answer 34

1) some questions are predetermined but also answers the new questions delivered as interview progresses 2) - more detailed information collected from each respondent so the questions shape by participants - can access information that may not be reflected by the predetermined questions 3) - more affected by interviewers bias than structured interviews - requires well informed interviewers which is more expensive

Question 35

Coding frame

Answer 35

Used after observation taken place snd themes are written to create categories and used to conduct consent analysis of quanlatative data

Question 36

Behavioural catagories

Answer 36

Designed before observations takes place and allows observes to collect quantitative data abiut the types of behaviour seen

Question 37

Sampling procedures

Answer 37

You could continously pbserbe snd record everyything i. As much detail as possible and only feasible when the behaviour interested in does not occur very often

Question 38

1) Non-participant observations (disclosed) 2) strengths 3) weaknesses

Answer 38

1) A method by which the researcher does nit participate in the actions of participants, instead observing from a distance 2) - researchers are more likely to be able to make reading and observations - replication slightly easier 3) - participants less likely to disclose information to researcher - meaning of behaviour is unclear

Question 39

1) Participant observation 2) - allows the researcher to gain trust of the participant - researchers are immersed in the situation meaning the behaviour is clearer 3) - the researcher may have to rely on memory for data collection - replication is often difficult

Answer 39

A method by which the researcher themself involve themselves in the activities of participants e.g. Zimbardo experiments

Question 40

1) Covert (undisclosed) 2) Strengths 3) Weaknesses

Answer 40

1)When the participants are unaware they are being observed through a one-way mirror 2) - the participants are unaware that they are taking part so their behaviour is more natural 3) - unethical as the participants annot give conset and have been deceived - the researchers might blow their cover

Question 41

1) Overt 2) Strengths 3) Weaknesses

Answer 41

1) when participants are unaware that they are being observed through a one-way mirror 2) - it ensures that the participants are able to consent to partaking in research i.e. research much more ethical 3) - leads to demand characteristics knowing that they are taking part meaning there is social desirability bias

Question 42

What is reliability?

Answer 42

Reliability refers to the consistency of your experiment. ● This can be within a set of scores or items(internal reliability)or over time, when trying to replicate results on other occasions (external reliability)

Question 43

Inter-rater reliability

Answer 43

The consistency between different observers / interviewers / researchers. ● More than one interviewer / observer is used to collect data for a research study. ● Low reliability may be caused if different interviewers / observers / researchers behave differently. ● This is assessed by comparing the results from two or more interviewers / observers / researchers questioning the same person. ● For the results to be reliable, the answers given /behaviours observed should be the same

Question 44

What is validity?

Answer 44

● This refers to the ‘trueness’ of the data collected. ● In a questionnaire, if a person does not provide an answer that represents what they actually think or feel, then the researcher is not measuring what they intended to measure

Question 45

Internal validity

Answer 45

Internal concerns whether a test does assess what it intended to assess ● Researcher bias ● Face validity ● Construct validity ● Concurrent validity ● Criterion validit

Question 46

External validity

Answer 46

External concerns the extent to which the results from a study can be generalised to beyond the particular study ● Population validity ● Ecological validity

Question 47

Internal validity - researcher bias

Answer 47

Researcher bias occurs when a researcher unintentionally, or unconsciously influences the outcome of any research they are conducting. ● This can be done in several ways ○ 1. Non-verbal communication ○ 2. Physical characteristics ○ 3. Bias in interpretation of data

Question 48

Researcher bias - non-verbal communication

Answer 48

The researcher can communicate their feelings about what they are observing without realising that they have done so. For example, a raised eyebrow can make the participant aware they may have said or done something which has surprised or shocked a researcher and they may alter their response as a consequence of this, affecting the validity of the data

Question 49

Researcher bias - interpretation of data

Answer 49

● A researcher can affect the results reported from a piece of research by interpreting the data in a biased way. They may not realise that they are interpreting it in a different way to someone else because it feels as if their view is the correct one. The extent to which this can occur is dependent on the data collected. This would not occur if the dependent variable is something like reaction time as this is an objective method of measurement

Question 50

Researcher bias - physical characteristics

Answer 50

● The appearance of the researcher and such physical characteristics as their gender will influence the behavioural response of the participant. This means that the behaviour is a product of the situation because of the researcher and therefore may not be reliable or valid

Question 51

Internal validity - construct validity

Answer 51

● Concerns whether a test assesses the underlying concept(s) or construct(s). ● For example, a questionnaire on obedience is assessed by considering various theoretical views about obedience (i.e. the underlying constructs) and the extent to which they have been represented by the questionnaire

Question 52

Internal validity - Face validity

Answer 52

● Face validity is a simple way of assessing whether or not something measures what it claims to measure, which is concerned with its face value. ● E.g. does an IQ test look like it tests intelligence? This is often assessed by consulting specialists within that particular area

Question 53

Internal validity - concurrent validity

Answer 53

● Established by comparing performance on a new test with a previously validated test on the same topic. ● If the new measure produces similar outcomes to the older one it demonstrates concurrent validity

Question 53

Internal validity - criterion validity

Answer 53

● Refers to the extent that test scores can predict a future behaviour or attitude. ● For example, an IQ test score would have high criterion validity if it was positively related to GCSE scores