1
Q
Topic 1 - what makes a criminal? (Biological)
A
2
Q
physiological explanations of criminal behaviour
A
3
Q
what hormone is linked to aggressive and criminal behaviour?
A
testosterone
4
Q
how does high testosterone influence behaviour?
A
it increases aggression and dominance
5
Q
who suggested high testosterone was associated with violent and criminal behaviour?
A
Glenn and Raine
6
Q
what did Choy find?
A
people with low resting heart rate are more likely to offend
7
Q
how is low resting heart rate linked to criminal behaviour?
A
it is linked to fearlessness and sensation seeking
8
Q
what does a genetic explanation of crime suggest?
A
criminal behaviour can be inherited
9
Q
what explanation did Brunner propose?
A
The warrior gene
10
Q
what is the warrior gene?
A
a variation of the MAOA gene that is linked to aggression
11
Q
how is the MAOA gene linked to violent/aggressive behaviour?
A
this gene produces an enzyme called MAOA which breaks down monoamine oxidase, leading to high levels of serotonin in the brain
12
Q
what was Brunner’s sample when studying the MAOA gene?
A
5 violent men from one family in the Netherlands
13
Q
what conclusion did brunner reach from the behaviour the 5 men shown?
A
a faulty MAOA gene may predispose impulsive violence and aggression
14
Q
non-physiological explanations of criminal behaviour
A
15
Q
who studied disrupted families being a cause for criminal behaviours?
A
Farrington
16
Q
what was Farrington sample’s size?
A
411 working class boys (ages 8 to adulthood) from London
17
Q
what 6 childhood risk factors were identified for later criminal behaviour?
A
- family criminality
- loss of mother
- adventurous behaviour + the tendency to take risks
- low school achievement
- poverty
- poor parenting e.g. role modelling bad behaviour
18
Q
what is differential association theory?
A
the idea that criminal behaviour is learned from those around them
19
Q
who proposed differential association theory?
A
Sutherland
20
Q
according to Sutherland, who are the most influential people?
A
close family and peer groups
21
Q
What was Sutherland’s 3 key points?
A
- influence of family and friends
- crime becomes normalised
- learning through interaction (crime techniques and justifying attitudes)
22
Q
what does kohlberg’s cognitive explanation focus on?
A
levels of moral reasoning
23
Q
how is moral reasoning linked to crime?
A
criminals show immature moral reasoning at the pre-conventional level
24
Q
what defines pre-conventional morality?
A
behaviour based on reward and punishment
25
KEY RESEARCH
Raine - brain abnormalities in murders indicated by PET scans
26
what does ngi stand for?
not guilty by reason of insanity
27
what is a pet scan?
a scan that measures brain activity using glucose
28
why is glucose used in pet scans?
active brain areas use more glucose
29
what is the function of the amygdala?
processing fear, aggression, and emotions
30
what can amygdala damage lead to?
lack of fear and empathy
31
what is the function of the prefrontal cortex?
self control, decision making, moral judgement
32
what can prefrontal cortex damage cause?
impulsivity and aggression
33
what was raine’s aim?
to investigate brain abnormalities in violent offenders
34
what research method was used?
quasi experiment
35
what was the iv?
type of participant
NGRI murderer or no non-murderer
36
what was the dv?
level of brain activity
37
how many ngi offenders were used?
41
38
describe the sample size used by Raine
41 NGI murders 39 males, 2 women, who had all admitted their crimes, from California
39
how many controls were used?
41, 39 men, 2 women
40
how were controls matched?
age, sex, and mental health (schizophrenia status)n
41
what task did participants complete?
the same continuous performance task
42
what was required before the scan?
- medication free for 2 weeks (ethical?)
- approved protocols
- consent forms
43
what happened before the scan?
glucose was injected
44
how was the DV (brain activity) measured?
10 brain slices at 10mm intervals
right and left hemisphere in 14 selected areas
45
what was found in the prefrontal cortex?
reduced activity in ngi offenders
46
what does reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex mean?
reduced ability to control impulses and behaviour
47
why is reduced prefrontal cortex activity linked to violence?
it lowers self control and moral decision making
48
what abnormality was found in the amygdala in ngi offenders?
lower or abnormal activity compared to controls
49
why is amygdala dysfunction important?
the amygdala processes fear and emotion
50
how can amygdala damage increase violent behaviour?
reduced fear of consequences and lack of empathy
51
APPLICATION
52
what are early intervention schemes?
Raine suggests that early intervention in children who are deemed ‘at risk’ for criminality or anti-social behaviour can prevent future violence
53
how to implement early intervention schemes? What is advised?
9 home visits from nurses during pregnancy and 23 visits in the first 2 years of a child’s life
advising the parents with valuable information e.g. the importance of reduced alcohol and smoking, improved nutrition and the child’s social, emotional and physical needs.
54
why are early intervention schemes useful?
essential cognitive growth happens in the womb and the first 2 years of a child’s life
55
why are early intervention schemes effective? (Proof)
400 low income women were randomly assigned to intervention or control group
Intervention group - received home visits from nurses during pregnancy and the irst 2 years of the child’s life with useful advice
Control group - received standard pre and post natal care
15 year follow up showed significant reduction (52.8%) and convictions (63%) than control
56
What are nutritional supplements?
Omega 3 defences may result in less self-control and increased levels of aggressive behaviour
Ani-social behaviour in prisons can be reduced by supplementing young offenders diets with vitamins, minerals and essential fatty acids e.g. Omega 3, which enhances brain structure, function and regulates neurotransmitters
57
How (within prisoners) are nutritional supplements used?
- packed into blister packs labelled with the prisoner’s name, cell and prison number, including vitamin/mineral capsule and 4 essential fatty acid capsules
- Omega 3 is to be taken 4 times a day, with the vitamin/mineral capsules once
- administered every day for a month
- monitored by prison guards to ensure compliance
58
Why are nutritional supplements useful?
To reduce disruption in prisons and to prevent recidivism if combined with a nutritional education programme (that prisoners follow after their release)
59
Why are nutritional supplements effective? (Proof)
Gesch reported a 26% improvement in the disciplinary record of young male offenders who took supplements though, effectiveness may depend on the concentration of Omega 3 given to offenders
60
TOPIC 2
Collecting and processing forensic evidence
61
why are fingerprints useful in forensic investigations?
- unique to everyone
- permanent patterns
- formed before birth
62
what is bottom-up processing in fingerprint analysis?
analysis based only on the physical evidence
63
why is bottom-up processing called data driven?
decisions are based on what is seen, not expectations
64
what is level 1 analysis?
overall pattern type such as loops or whorls
65
what is level 2 analysis?
specific ridge characteristics
66
what is level 3 analysis?
fine details such as ridge width and pores
67
what is a strength of bottom-up processing?
it is objective and evidence based
68
what are weakness’ of bottom-up processing?
- it can ignore important contextual information
- prints may be unclear or partial
69
what is top-down processing in fingerprint analysis?
interpretation influenced by prior knowledg
70
what type of information influences top-down processing?
contextual and background information
71
how does top-down processing affect decision making?
expectations or emotions can bias interpretations
72
what are motivating factors?
emotional or situational pressures to close the case
73
How did Charlton study motivating factors?
using semi-structured interviews with 13 experienced fingerprint experts, he concluded psychological factors e.g. job satisfaction and emotional rewards with catching a criminal can influence people to quickly close the case
74
How did Dror study the influence of crime types on emotions?
using high and low emotional contexts from violent or non-violent crime scenes, using 27 student participants who had to match ambiguous/unambiguous fingerprints
when a match was ambiguous, participants were influenced by contextual information
75
what are cognitive factors in forensic analysis?
mental processes affecting interpretation
76
give examples of cognitive factors
attention, perception and memory
77
what is contextual bias?
when irrelevant information influences decisions
e.g. details of the suspect
78
what is confirmation bias?
tendency to seek evidence supporting pre existing beliefs
79
what happened in the madrid bombings case?
latent fingerprints were misidentified from the ‘bombers bag’
80
who was brandon mayfield?
an american lawyer who was wrongly identified
he was also a person of interest to the FBI after 9/11
81
why was mayfield identified?
due to similarities and contextual information / confirmation bias
82
why is this case important?
it shows the dangers of contextual bias
83
KEY RESEARCH
hall & player
84
what was Hall & Player’s aims?
to understand if the written report of a crime, as routinely supplied with the fingerprint evidence, affect a fingerprint expert’s interpretation of a poor quality mark?
to see are the fingerprint experts emotionally affected by the circumstances of the case e.g. the context
85
who took part in hall and player’s study?
70 fingerprint experts from the Metropolitan Police volunteered for an experiment, with varying levels of experience, average 11
86
what were the roles of the fingerprint experts in their everyday lives?
most were active practitioners working on fingerprint teams, 12 were managers who were still registered as fingerprint experts but no longer actively worked on cases
87
what research method was used?
field experiment
88
why was this a field experiment?
the experts were in their natural environment
New Scotland Yard, during their regular work hours, treating the case like they would handle any
89
what was the independent variable?
emotional context of the crime
90
what were the two levels of the iv?
high emotional context
low emotional context
91
what was the low emotional context condition?
forgery
‘Suspect entered premises and tried to pay for goods with a forged £50 note’
92
what was the high emotional context condition?
murder
Same report, except ‘suspect then fired two shots at victim’
93
what did hall and player find overall?
57 out of 70 read the crime scene report (30 were from the high-emotion group)
52% of those in high emotional group vs 6% in the low emotional group said they felt affected by the information
however, overall there was no significant difference in their decisions
= 20% low vs 17% high felt confident to present their evidence in court
94
what is linear sequential unmasking (LSU)
a technique that adopts a linear line of reasoning where the evidence is examined first before seeing known reference material e.g. case report
95
outline the procedure of linear sequential unmasking
1. Analysis begins with fingerprint evidence alone
2. Compare the fingerprint with database or any potential suspects (still shielded from broader case details)
3. Only after the technical comparison do they receive contextual information
96
why is linear sequential unmasking useful?
offers reduced bias whilst still providing experts with flexibility in their work
97
what is ACE-V?
a step by step that minimises the effects of bias in fingerprint identification
98
What does A stand for?
Analysis - latent prints are taken from a crime scene and examined to determine the overall pattern of the ridges
99
What does C stand for?
Comparison - fingerprints are taken from the suspect and inked, these fingerprints are then examined with the same level of detail of the latent prints
100
What does E stand for?
Evaluation - inked and latent prints are examined side by side to determine if there was a match
101
What does V stand for?
Verification - positive identifications are verified by a second expert who repeats the process without knowing there has been an identification e.g. blind
102
TOPIC 3
103
what is the cognitive interview?
a technique to improve eyewitness recall
104
why was the cognitive interview developed?
standard interviews were ineffective
105
what did standard interviews involve?
rapid questions and interruptions
106
what is context reinstatement?
mentally recreating the event
107
what details are included in context reinstatement?
sights, sounds, emotions, environment
108
what is report everything?
recalling all details even if they seem unimportant
109
why is report everything useful?
small details may trigger important memories
110
what is recall from changed perspective?
describing the event from another person’s view
111
what is recall in changed order?
recalling events in reverse or different order (catches out those who are lying about events)
112
KEY RESEARCH
Memon & Higham
113
what type of study is memon and higham (1999)?
review article
114
what was the aim of memon and higham (1999)?
ato evaluate the effectiveness of the cognitive interview
115
what are the four main components of the cognitive interview?
- context reinstatement
- report everything
- changed order
- changed perspective
116
what did research show about the effectiveness of the cognitive interview?
it produces more information than standard interviews
117
which component of the cognitive interview is most effective according to Memon and Higham?
All components of the cognitive interview (according to Memon herself + also supported by Milne)
But context reinstatement alone
118
why is comparing the cognitive interview to the standard interview difficult?
the standard interview is not standardised
119
what did Memon and Higham believe was a better comparison than the standard interview?
the structured interview
120
how is memory performance often measured?
number of correct statements
121
what did Memon and Higham believe is a problem with measuring memory this way?
it ignores missing information
122
why is interviewer training important?
it improves the effectiveness of the cognitive interview
123
what individual differences affect interviewer performance?
motivation, experience, and attitude
124
what did memon and higham conclude?
- interviewer training needs to be a minimum of 2 full days
- potential interviewers who lack motivation or attitude could be directed into other areas of police work
- cognitive interview should be co,pared to structured interview instead
125
what is the peace framework?
a police interview model used to ensure ethical and effective questioning and reduce false confessions
126
how does the peace framework work?
it follows five stages:
preparation (plan interview and gather information)
engage (build rapport and explain purpose)
account (free recall with open questions and challenge inconsistencies)
closure (end positively and give contact details)
evaluation (review interview effectiveness and evidence)
127
why is the peace framework good?
it ensures ethical interviews, reduces false confessions, and helps identify lies through inconsistencies
128
what is audio recording in police interviews?
recording interviews to create a full and accurate record of what was said
129
how does audio recording work in interviews?
the interviewer records the session stating names, date, time, and place, informs the suspect, records the full interview, then ends by cautioning the suspect and noting the time
130
why is audio recording good?
it prevents disputes, protects both suspect and police, and provides accurate evidence for court
131
TOPIC 4
132
what is witness confidence?
how confident a witness feels about their identification or testimony
133
how does witness confidence affect jury decisions?
more confident witnesses are more likely to be believed by juries and lead to guilty verdicts
134
what did Penrod and Cutler (1995) find about witness confidence?
100 percent confident witness led to 67 percent guilty verdicts compared to 60 percent when 80 percent confident
135
what are children like as witnesses?
they can observe well but struggle to describe events verbally
136
what did Rozell (1985) find about children as witnesses?
children can give reliable identifications but are affected by leading questions, distorting their version of events
137
what is the halo effect?
a bias where attractive people are seen as more positive and less guilty
138
what did Castellow et al. (1990) investigate?
the effect of attractiveness on jury decisions
139
what did Castellow et al. (1990) find about the attractiveness of defendants?
attractive defendants were found guilty 56 percent of the time compared to 76 percent for unattractive defendants
140
how does attractiveness affect sentencing?
attractive people often receive lighter sentences
141
KEY RESEARCH
DIXON
142
what was the aim of Dixon?
to test whether a brummie accent increases guilt ratings and whether race and crime type affect this
143
what research method did Dixon use?
a laboratory experiment
144
what was the design of Dixon?
independent measures design with a 2 by 2 by 2 factorial design
145
what were the independent variables in Dixon?
accent type (brummie or standard)
race of suspect (white or black)
type of crime (blue collar or white collar)
146
what was the dependent variable in Dixon?
guilt ratings given by participants
147
what was the sample in Dixon?
119 white undergraduate students from university college worcester
148
why were participants from birmingham excluded?
to avoid familiarity with the brummie accent reducing bias
149
what did participants do in Dixon’s study?
listened to a recorded police interview and rated guilt
150
how was accent manipulated in Dixon?
the suspect (a natural code switcher) spoke in either a brummie or standard accent
151
how was crime type manipulated in Dixon?
the suspect was accused of armed robbery or cheque fraud
152
how was race manipulated in Dixon?
the suspect was subtly described as black or white in the script
153
what did participants do after listening?
rated guilt on a 7 point scale and completed a speech evaluation
154
what did the speech evaluation measure?
- superiority
- attractiveness
- dynamism
155
what was found about superiority ratings?
brummie accent was rated lower than standard accent
156
what was the main finding of Dixon?
brummie accented suspects were judged more guilty
157
what interaction effect was found in Dixon?
brummie accent, black race, and blue collar crime led to highest guilt ratings
158
what does this suggest about bias?
accents and stereotypes influence jury decisions
159
what is presenting evidence in story order?
organising evidence into a clear chronological narrative to help juries understand the case
160
how does presenting evidence in story order work?
lawyers organise evidence into a timeline, jurors build their own story, the judge summarises evidence, and jurors match their story to a verdict
161
why is presenting evidence in story order good?
it helps jurors understand evidence and is more persuasive than witness order
162
what are expert witnesses?
specialists who provide unbiased knowledge to help the court understand complex evidence
163
how do expert witnesses work?
they give detailed explanations, present expert opinions, and help jurors understand areas such as memory or behaviour
164
why are expert witnesses good?
they improve juror understanding and reduce reliance on inaccurate factors like witness confidence
165
TOPIC 5
166
what is defensible space?
designing neighbourhoods so residents feel ownership and responsibility which reduces crime
167
how does defensible space work?
it uses territoriality, natural surveillance, image, and milieu to increase ownership, visibility, and safety in an area
168
why is defensible space good?
it reduces crime by encouraging community control and making offenders feel observed
169
what is broken windows theory?
the idea that visible disorder leads to more serious crime
170
how does broken windows theory work?
signs of neglect like graffiti signal no control, leading others to commit more crime as behaviour escalates
171
what did Zimbardo (1969) do?
left two identical cars abandoned in different neighbourhoods to observe behaviour
172
where were the cars placed in Zimbardo (1969)?
one in the bronx new york (high crime area) and one in palo alto california (low crime area)
173
what happened to the car in the bronx?
it was quickly vandalised, stripped, and destroyed within a short time
174
what happened to the car in palo alto initially?
it remained untouched for several days
175
what did Zimbardo do to the palo alto car?
he smashed part of it with a hammer to create visible damage
176
what happened after the palo alto car was damaged?
people began vandalising it, eventually destroying it like the bronx car (supporting broken windows theory)
177
what is zero tolerance policing?
a strategy where all crimes, even minor ones, are strictly punished
178
how does zero tolerance policing work?
police strictly enforce laws on minor offences like graffiti to prevent escalation into serious crime
179
KEY RESEARCH
Wilson & kelling
180
what was the aim of Wilson and Kelling (1982)?
to explain how neighbourhood disorder affects crime and the role of police in maintaining order
181
what was the safe and clean neighbourhoods program?
a program where police patrolled on foot instead of cars to improve community safety in New Jersey
182
what were the results of the foot patrol program?
crime did not decrease but residents felt safer and trusted police more
183
why did residents feel safer despite no drop in crime?
because disorder e.g. beggars or drunk was reduced ( which W&K claimed is what residents fear the most in a neighbourhood) and police presence increased reassurance
184
what happens to neighbourhoods with disorder according to W&K?
residents withdraw, social control weakens, and crime increases
185
what is the role of community controls?
informal social rules that help maintain order and prevent crime
186
what is the role of police according to Wilson and Kelling?
to support community control and maintain order not just catch criminals
187
why do Wilson and Kelling oppose ignoring minor crimes?
because small issues can escalate into serious crime if left unresolved (broken windows theory)
188
what is a tipping point neighbourhood?
an area where disorder is increasing but can still be prevented from becoming high crime
189
where should police focus their efforts?
on neighbourhoods at the tipping point to prevent further decline
190
what police solutions did Wilson and Kelling suggest?
foot patrols, community rules, and citizen patrol groups
191
what is a key conclusion of Wilson and Kelling?
police should focus on maintaining safe communities not just reducing crime rates
192
what are neighbourhood watch schemes?
community based schemes where residents work together with police to prevent crime and improve safety
193
how do neighbourhood watch schemes work?
residents organise a group, register with nhwn, appoint a coordinator, share information with police, monitor neighbourhood activity, and use security measures like cctv, lighting, and property marking
194
why are neighbourhood watch schemes good?
they deter crime, increase community vigilance, reduce opportunities for crime, and improve safety especially for vulnerable residents
195
what is pulling levers policing?
a targeted strategy where police focus on key offenders and use all legal methods to prevent crime
196
how does pulling levers policing work?
police identify crime problems, target key offenders, apply strict sanctions, and communicate consequences to deter future offending
197
why is pulling levers policing good?
it deters crime by increasing consequences, reduces opportunities, and allows flexible targeted interventions
198
TOPIC 6
199
what are custodial and non custodial punishments?
custodial punishments involve prison or secure hospital, while non custodial involve fines, probation, or community sentences
200
how do custodial punishments work?
offenders are removed from society, restricted in freedom, and punished while also aiming to deter and reform behaviour
201
why are custodial punishments used?
to protect the public, punish offenders, provide retribution, and attempt to deter future crime
202
what is reform as a response to crime?
helping offenders change behaviour and reintegrate into society rather than just punishing them
203
how does reform in prisons work?
through working prisons, skill development, therapy programmes, and support for employment after release
204
what did Gillis and Nafekh (2005) find?
offenders with employment during parole are less likely to reoffend as they have more of a chance of reintegrating into society
205
KEY RESEARCH
Haney
206
what was the aim of the Haney study (1973)?
to investigate how social roles and the prison environment influence behaviour in a simulated prison
207
what was the dispositional hypothesis in the Haney study?
the idea that prison behaviour is caused by personality traits of prisoners and guards rather than the environment
208
what method did Haney use?
a laboratory experiment designed to closely simulate a real prison environment
209
what was the independent variable in the Haney study?
whether participants were randomly assigned as guards or prisoners
210
what was the dependent variable in the Haney study?
behaviour and psychological responses measured through observation, interviews, questionnaires, and daily reports
211
what was the sample in the Haney study?
24 emotionally stable male volunteers recruited through newspaper adverts and paid $15 per day
212
how were participants assigned roles in Haney?
they were randomly assigned to be either guards or prisoners
213
how was the prison environment created in Haney?
a realistic mock prison was built with cells, solitary confinement, surveillance areas, and a prison yard
214
how were prisoners brought into the prison?
they were arrested at home by real police, processed at a station, then taken to the mock prison and dehumanised
215
how were prisoners dehumanised in Haney?
they were stripped, given prison uniforms, assigned id numbers, chained, and had their personal identity removed
216
what uniforms did guards and prisoners wear in Haney?
guards wore khaki uniforms, sunglasses, whistles, and batons; prisoners wore numbered smocks, ankle chains, and caps
217
what happened to guards in the Haney study?
guards became increasingly authoritarian, abusive, and controlling over time (pathology of power)
218
what happened to prisoners in the Haney study?
prisoners became passive, anxious, emotionally distressed, internalised their role and became dependant on authority (loss of identity + learned helplessness)
219
why was the Haney study stopped early?
it was terminated after 6 days due to extreme psychological distress in prisoners and abusive behaviour by guards
220
what did Haney conclude?
social roles and prison environments strongly shape behaviour
psychology
flashcards
Decks in class (20)
# Cards
-
mathematical skills45
-
research methods62
-
experiments38
-
self reports29
-
observations20
-
correlations15
-
inferential statistics25
-
inferential tests15
-
how science works5
-
psychological debates38
-
the behaviourist perspective34
-
the psychodynamic perspective49
-
the developmental area117
-
the individual differences area111
-
the social area117
-
the cognitive area110
-
the biological area105
-
metal illness138
-
crime220
-
sport0
