1
Q
what are the assumptions / principles of the developmental area?
A
- changes and development is an on- going process throughout our lifetime
- development is pre-determined (stages) as we mature (maturation)
- behaviour can be either learnt or innate
2
Q
what is the key theme of the developmental area?
A
external influences on children’s behaviour
3
Q
give examples of how the developmental area believe we may learn behaviour?
A
- reinforcement (behaviourism)
- watching other people (social learning theory)
4
Q
THE CLASSIC STUDY
BANDURA ET AL
1961
A
5
Q
explain the background of Bandura’s study
A
previous research has shown that children will readily imitate behaviour demonstrated by an adult model if the model remains present, however, Bandura wanted to study what behaviour would be displayed by an individual if the model is absent
6
Q
what were the 4 hypothesis for Bandura’s study?
A
- children shown aggressive models will show significantly more imitative aggressive behaviour, resembling their models, than those shown a non-aggressive model or no model
- children shown non-aggressive models will show significantly less aggressive behaviour than those shown aggressive models
- boys will show significantly more imitative aggression than girls
- children will imitate same-sex model behaviour to a greater degree than oppo-site-sex behaviour
7
Q
what theory is Bandura’s study based on?
A
social learning theory
8
Q
what was Bandura’s sample
A
72 children, 36 boys and 36 girls, mean age of 4 years and 4 months, from Stanford University Nursery School
9
Q
Bandura’s participants were ‘matched’ in this study, how? and why?
A
they were matched on pre-rated / pre-existing aggressive levels, to be able to control whether aggressiveness was already present, or learnt through the study. they were rated on 4x five-point rating scales by both the experimenter and the nursery teacher - inter-rater reliability
10
Q
what research method did Bandura use?
A
a laboratory experiment + a controlled observation
11
Q
what experimental design did Bandura use?
A
matched pairs design
12
Q
what sampling technique did Bandura use?
A
opportunity
13
Q
what were the IVs of Bandura’s study?
A
- whether the child witnessed an aggressive or non-aggressive adult model (the control group was not exposed to any model)
- the sex of the model (male or female)
- the sex of the child (boy or girl)
14
Q
what was the DV of Bandura’s study?
A
the amount of imitative behaviour and aggression shown by the child in phase 3, measured by the experimenter and a second researcher who observed through a one-way mirror - inter rater reliability
15
Q
explain Bandura’s groups
A
each child only participated in either one of the experimental conditions
i.e., boy + male aggressive/non-aggressive model; girl + male aggressive/non-aggressive model: boy + female aggressive/non-aggressive model; girl + female aggressive/non-aggres-sive model;
control group (no model) or the control group (no model).
16
Q
explain phase 1 of Bandura’s study
A
children in the experimental conditions were individually taken into a room and sat at a table to play with potato prints and picture stickers for 10 minutes whilst:
- the aggressive model began by assembling a tinker toy set but after about a minute turned to a Bobo doll and spent the remainder of the
period physically and verbally aggressing it using a standardised procedure.
- the non-aggressive model assembled the tinker toys in a quiet subdued manner, t tally ignoring the Bobo doll
- The control group did not participate in Phase
17
Q
explain phase 2 of Bandura’s study
A
all the children were then taken to a second room, and subjected to mild agression arousal. initially they were allowed to play with some very attractive toys but after about two minutes the experimenter took the toys away saying they were reserved for other children, however they were able to play with any of the toys in the next room.
18
Q
explain phase 3 of Bandura’s study
A
children were then taken individually into a third room (called the anteroom) which contained both aggressive and non-aggressive toys e.g.. 3ft high Bobo doll, a mallet, dart guns and non-
aggressive toys e.g., tea set, cars, dolls. they were observed through a one-way mirror for 20 minutes, every 5 seconds (time sampling), whilst observers recorded behaviour (with inter-scorer reliabilities of 0.90 product-moment coefficients) in the following categories:
- imitative aggression (physical, verbal and non-aggressive speech)
- partially imitative aggression.
- non-imitative physical and verbal aggression
- non-aggressive behaviour.
19
Q
what are they key findings of Bandura’s study
A
- children in the aggressive condition showed significantly more imitation of physical and verbal aggressive behaviour and non-aggressive verbal responses than children in the non-aggressive or control conditions
- children in the non-aggressive condition showed very little aggression, although results were not always significantly less than the control group
- boys imitated male models more than girls for physical and verbal aggression and also gun play
- girls imitated female models more than boys for verbal imitative aggression and non-imitative aggression
- the behaviour of the male model exerted greater influence than the female model
- boys produced more imitative physical aggression than girls
20
Q
what are some possible conclusions of Bandura’s study?
A
- children will imitate aggressive/non-aggressive behaviours displayed by adult models, even if the model is not present
- behaviour modelled by male adults has a greater influence on children’s behaviour than behaviour modelled by a female adult
- children can learn behaviour through observation and imitation
21
Q
evaluate Bandura’s research method
A
+ high level of control over extraneous variables e.g. bandura was able to use a highly controlled environment to conduct his study
- high levels of demand characteristics, the children may have guessed what the experimenter wanted them to act/behave, changing their behaviour
22
Q
evaluate the validity of Bandura’s study
A
+ internal validity is high, because other variables are controlled meaning it measures what it is supposed to (the aggression of the children)
- ecological validity is low, due to it being conducted in a lab experiment, as it is an artificial environment = not true to life = children are not often placed in a room to imitate aggressive behaviour
23
Q
evaluate the reliability of Bandura’s study
A
+ inter-rater reliability was high (0.9) from the two observers
+ a standardised procedure was used to attack the bobo doll (both physical and verbally)
24
Q
evaluate the sampling bias of Bandura’s study
A
+ reasonably large sample - 72 children
= fairly representative of the target population
- the children were all from the same area of the US, and same school, meaning they may not be representative of the target population
25
evaluate the ethnocentrism of Bandura's study
- an ethnocentric study
= the ideas about imitation of behaviour through social learning may only apply to a collectivist culture so the results of the study may not be valid when applied to other cultures
26
evaluate the types of data in Bandura's study
+ quantitative data = coding frame
= easy to make statistical comparisons and analyse the levels of imitations between groups
- no qualitative data = no reasoning behind the aggressive behaviour, just the record that it is present
27
evaluate the ethical considerations of Bandura's study
+ confidentiality
= names of the children were never released
+ consent was given by the parents
- consent came from the parents, rather than the participants themselves
- psychological harm (aggression arousal)
- covert observation
28
THE CONTEMPORARY STUDY
CHANEY ET AL
2004
29
explain the background of Chaney's study
behaviour therapy and behaviour modification (based on classical and operant conditioning) have been major approaches to improve the adherence to prescribed medical regimes, the aim of this study, was to show how the use of positive reinforcement through the fun-haler can prove this
30
what theory is Chaney's study based on?
operant conditioning
31
what was Chaney's sample?
32 children, 22 male and 10 female
mean age 3.2 years
average duration of asthma 2.2 years
32
what research method did Chaney use?
a field experiment in the child's home
self reports = over the phone questionnaires and interviews
33
what was Chaney's experimental design?
independent measures design
34
what were the 2 IVs in Chaney's study?
- whether the child used a standard/small volume spacer device
- whether the child used a fun-haler
35
what was the DV in Chaney's study?
the amount of adherence to the prescribed medical regime - how much? how often?
36
give an outline of Chaney's procedure/study
- participants' parents were firstly interviewed with a questionnaire on their existing use of their inhaler
- they were then given the fun-haler to try for 2 weeks
- reported over the phone on a day-to-day basis to record snapshots of whether they had used the fun-haler the previous day
- matched questionnaires were completed (by parents) after the use of both the regular inhaler and the fun-haler
37
what questions did the matched questionnaires for Chaney's parents include?
how easy the device was to use, compliance of parents and children, treatment attitudes etc.
38
what were the key findings of the use of the fun-haler?
- 81% of children using the fun-haler were found to have been medicated the day before, compared to 59% using the regular inhaler
- 30% more children (from 50-80) took the recommended 4 or more cycles of aerosol delivery
39
give possible conclusions of the fun-haler
- the fun-haler may be useful for management of young asthmatics
- the use of this fun-haler, may help to improve the health of children
- more research would be needed to suggest the long-term efficacy of this treatment
40
evaluate the research method of Chaney’s study
+ low in demand characteristics
= the child won’t alter their behaviour towards taking the asthma medication
- low levels of control over any other extraneous variables, conducted in different homes, with different parents etc.
41
evaluate the validity of Chaney’s study
+ high in ecological validity
= the experiment takes place in a natural environment
= behaviour should reflect real life
- low in internal validity
= low control, so may not be able to accurately measure medical compliance e.g. parents social desirability bias
42
evaluate the reliability of Chaney’s study
+ structured interviews and questionnaires make the study replicable
- there was no routine way in which the asthma medication is given
43
evaluate the sampling bias of Chaney’s study
a biased sample
= small number of Australian children used, may not be representative of other children
44
evaluate the ethnocentrism of Chaney’s study
an ethnocentric study
= may be relevant to some cultures only
= carried out entirely in australia
= western parenting styles, healthcare systems and children’s responses to reward systems, which may differ from culture to culture
45
evaluate the types of data used in Chaney’s study
+ quantitative data
= easy to compare statistical results
+ qualitative data
= overall idea/insight
46
evaluate the ethical considerations in Chaney’s study
+ informed consent from parents
+ protection from harm
= all children are given access to a fun-haler
+ anonymity
- no informed consent from the actual participants (the children)
47
what is individual diversity? how does Chaney change our understanding of this?
how do people differ
chaney didn’t add any understanding
48
what is cultural diversity? how does Chaney change our understanding of this?
how do cultures differ
chaney adds to our knowledge of this slightly
= chanel added some geographical diversity by not solely relying on a U.S sample
49
what is social diversity? how does Chaney change our understanding of this?
how do societies differ
chaney adds to our understanding of this
= his findings are more applicable to everyday families from different walks of life
50
outline some applications to either Bandura or Chaney’s study
Chaney
- special education
- curriculum design
- early childhood education
Bandura
- family law
- parenting programmes
- family counselling
51
give similarities between Bandura’s and Chaney’s study
- both use children in their sample
- both found quantitative data
- both reliable
- both us an experimental method
52
give differences between Bandura’s and Chaney’s study
B = lab experiment
C = field experiment
B = observations
C = self reports
B = independent measures
C = repeated measures
B = opportunity sampling
C = self - selected sampling
53
Bandura - nature vs nurture debate
nurture
= children learn aggressive behaviour by observing and then imitating others
54
Chaney - nature vs nurture debate
nurture
= external environmental factors e.g positive reinforcement from the funhaler can shape children's behavioural responses to medical regimes
55
Bandura - free will / determinism view
supports a soft deterministic approach suggesting that social learning is a result of observation and imitation but that mediating (cognitive) processes are involved in the decision to either imitate or not
56
Chaney - free will / determinism view
more deterministic than Bandura.
= shows operant conditioning is responsible for learning in the form of positive reinforcement
57
Bandura - usefulness
develops our understandings of now aggressive
models can influence the way children can develop behaviour
practical applications:
- family therapies
- parenting programmes
58
Chaney - usefulness
practical applications:
- positive reinforcement, which can be used in schools etc. to support children in the way they learn
- medical practices
59
Bandura - psychology as a science
+ Bandura has 4 hypothesis before the experiment that he then tested
+ quantitative
+ objective data
+ laboratory experiments
60
Chaney - psychology as a science
+ quantitative
+ objective data
- field experiment
= less control
61
give strengths of the developmental area
the area uses experimental designs
= which have high levels of control
= which supports the psychology as science debate as it allows for the falsification of hypotheses,being able to prove hypotheses wrong allows for the possibility of changes to understanding and the development of psychological theories
the area produces deterministic explanations
= which are useful for developing practical applications
= this is a strength as practical applications may help people live a more fulfilling life e.g. prevent anti-social behaviour
62
gives weaknesses of the developmental area
the area supports a nuture explanation for behaviour
= which is deterministic
= lacks usefulness as it prevents people taking responsibility for their own actions and does not fit into the ideas of personal responsibility (legal issues)
the area often uses unrepresentative samples from one culture only
= meaning that explanations for behaviour may be ethnocentric and lack generalisability, this is a weakness as explanations for behaviour may not be valid when used in different cultures
63
THE CLASSIC STUDY
KOHLBERG (1968)
MORAL DEVELOPMENT
64
what was kohlberg background on his story into moral development?
based on Piaget’s theory; Kohlberg believed moral reasoning develops through stages as we mature, and therefore built on this idea by expanding the stages and studying them into adulthood
65
what was kohlberg aim?
to investigate how moral reasoning changes with age and into adolescence
to investigate whether it is consistent across cultures, through a range of cultural contexts
.
66
what was kohlberg’s research method?
longitudinal study (over 12 years) using semi-structured interviews
67
what was kohlberg experimental design?
repeated measures design.
68
what was kohlberg sample?
75 American boys aged 10–16 at start, followed until 22–28 years old
69
outline kohlberg procedure
- participants were first assessed when they were either 10, 13 or 16, then tested every 3-4 years after until age 24
- this testing included hypothetical moral dilemmas in the form of short stories, where participants were then asked a series of open questions to explain the reasons for their choice; the focus wasn’t on what their answer was to the dilemma but was on why (i.e. their moral reasoning)
= their answers and reasoning behind their answers were linked to 25 basic moral concepts e.g. the value of human life, reasons for obeying rules
70
outline kohlbergs cross cultural procedure
Kohlberg tested boys in two rural villages in Malaysia and Taiwan (he was helped to interpret their responses by a Chinese researcher - subjective)
Kohlberg also tested boys in two isolated villages, one in Mexico and one in Turkey
71
outline and explain level 1 of kohlberg’s moral development
pre-conventional level (personal)
= no personal understanding of moralit
72
what was stage 1 of kohlberg’s moral development?
orientation towards punishment
= at this stage, children obey rules to avoid punishment, however, do not understand the importance and implications of being moral
73
what was stage 2 of kohlberg’s moral development
?
orientation towards self-interest
= at this stage, children conform to obtain rewards, have favours returned – based on meeting own needs e.g “What’s in it for me?”
74
outline and explain level 2 of kohlberg’s moral development
conventional level (societal)
= we begin to internalise moral values set by adult role models, reasons start to become based on group norms
75
what was stage 3 of kohlberg’s moral development?
good-boy-good-girl orientation
= at this stage, children conform to good behaviour to gain
approval from others
76
what was stage 4 of kohlberg’s moral development?
orientation towards authority
= at this stage, children conform to avoid disapproval by legitimate authorities and resultant guilt
77
outline and explain level 3 of kohlberg’s moral development
post-conventional level (universal)
= based on self-chosen principles, individuals rights and justice
78
what was stage 5 of kohlberg’s moral development?
social contract orientation
= at this stage, children believe right, is what has been agreed upon by a whole society, laws are important but they can be changed/questioned
79
what was stage 6 of kohlberg’s moral development?
orientation towards ethical and conscience principles
= at this stage, people have developed their own set of moral guidelines which may or may not fit the law
80
key findings of kohlberg’s study in general
- moral development progresses through 3 levels & 6 stages in fixed order
- not everyone reaches the highest stages
- no skipping of stages, some regression, but mostly forward movement
81
cross cultural findings of kohlberg’s study on moral development
- stages are universal across cultures, and follow the same pattern
- development was slower in some cultures (some individuals in non-Western cultures e.g rural villages in Mexico rarely reached the higher stages)
- middle class children progressed further
82
outline conclusions of kohlberg’s study on moral development
- moral development follows a universal sequence
- not everyone reaches the final stage
- cultural and class differences affect the rate of development, but not the order
83
evaluate kohlberg's research method
longitudinal
+ able to gather large amounts of data
= eliminates individual differences as an EV
+ allows him to track change over time
- takes a long time to conduct
84
evaluate kohlberg's validity
+ high in internal validity
= high control
= eliminates EVs e.g individual differences
- low in ecological validity
= hypothetical moral dilemmas, instead of real life ones
85
evaluate kohlberg's reliability
+ high in reliability
= easy to replicable
e.g same set of moral dilemmas, structured format within interviews etc.
86
evaluate kohlberg's sample
+ range of nationalities
+ mix of social classes were studied
- all American
- all boys (andocentric sample)
87
evaluate kohlberg's ethnocentrism
+ range of nationalities (not ethnocentric)
- all American participants (ethnocentric)
88
evaluate kohlberg's data
+ collects qualitative data
= allows us to gather an insight/reasoning for the data
- qualitative data
= hard to draw conclusions from, make comparisons compared to quantitative data
89
evaluate kohlberg's ethics
an ethical study
+ no deception
+ no harm to participants
etc.
90
THE CONTEMPORARY STUDY
LEE ET AL (1997)
91
what was the background of lee’s study?
Western cultures (e.g. U.S.) view truth-telling as inherently good and lying as bad.
Chinese culture emphasizes modesty and group values, which may affect how lying/truth-telling is judged, lee wanted to study this
92
what was the aim of lee study?
to investigate how children from different cultures (China vs. Canada) evaluate lying and truth-telling in prosocial and antisocial situations
93
what was lee’s research method?
cross-cultural experiment using a quasi-experimental design
94
what was lee’s experimental design?
independent measures and repeated measures design
95
what was lee’s sample?
120 Chinese children (ages 7, 9, 11) - 40 from each
108 Canadian middle- class children (ages 7, 9, 11)
96
what was lee’s 4 IVs?
1. whether the participant was chinese or canadian
2. the age of each participant, either 7,9 or 11
3. whether the participant heard the social story or the physical story
4. whether the participant heard the pro-social or anti-social story
97
outline lee’s procedure
- the children, both canadian and chinese, were randomly assigned to either the social story condition or the physical story condition
- participants were then instructed about the meaning of words/symbols for rating the deeds and verbal statements on a 7-point rating chart (ranging from very very good to very very naughty)
- participants were then read either 4 social or physical stories
- the stories ‘deed’ section was read first, and the participants were then to indicate their rating
- they were then read the second section of the story and would then indicate, in the same way, their rating from the characters verbal statement
98
key findings of lee’s study
- for the first question, every good deed had a positive score, and every bad deed had a negative score (regardless the type of story, the age of the child, and the ethnicity of the child)
However, the ratings of the truth-telling and lie-telling as good or bad showed differences between the cultures:
- as they got older the Chinese children began to see lie-telling in good deed situations as more positive (only in oldest children in the social story)
- canadian children showed the Western moral thinking of disapproving of all lie-telling in every situation (every story type and across all ages)
99
qualitative findings of lee’s study
in relation to chinese negative ratings for truth telling in pro-social situations, nearly half said it was because the child in the story had been ‘begging for’ or ‘wanting’ praise
100
conclusions of lee’s study
moral development is different in different cultures due to socio-
cultural norms and practices, and not only because of cognitive development as proposed by earlier research
101
evaluate lee’s research method
cross-cultural
+ increases representativeness of the sample (cross-cultural)
- in some cultures, children may not be used to one-to-one interviews with adults
= could cause them to try and answer the way they think they should rather than tell the truth
102
evaluative lee’s validity
+ high in interval validity
= carefully designed to be highly controlled (age and gender), reducing participant variables
+ high in population validity
= good age range, cultural variation etc.
- low in ecological validity
= hypothetical scenarios, not real life situations
= children may not respond in the same way they would react to actual situations involving lying/ truth telling
103
evaluate lee’s reliability
+ standardised procedures
= can be replicated
e.g same 7-point rating scale, same 4 social or 4 physical stories etc
104
evaluate lee’s sample
+ cross cultural sample
= children from 2 distinctly different cultures
+ ranges of ages (7-11)
+ relatively large sample
- only 2 cultures studied
- all from urban, school-based settings
= may not represent rural children
105
evaluate lee’s ethnocentrism
tried to avoid ethnocentric issues, as it was a cross cultural study
however, questionable whether Canada can be taken to illustrate all ‘Western’ cultures any more than China can be taken to represent all ‘Eastern’ cultures
106
evaluate lee’s data
+ quantitative data
= 7 point rating scale
= easily analysed
+ qualitative data
= reasons why the participants chose the option they did
107
evaluate lee’s ethics
it can be assumed that ethical guidelines were adhered to:
- right to withdraw
- no psychological harm
- consent
-anonymity
108
similarities between kohlberg's study and lee's study
+ both high in internal validity
+ both high in reliability
+ both ethical
+ both use children in their sample
+ both suffer ethnocentrism and sampling bias issues
109
differences between kohlberg's study and lee's study
L: quantitative data
K: qualitative
L: cross-sectional
K: longitudinal
L: mixed gender
K: all boys sample
110
Kohlberg - nature vs nurture debate
supports and individual and nature explanation as he found that moral thinking develops through the six stages in the same way
111
Lee - nature vs nurture debate
supports a situational and nurture explanation of moral thinking because the study emphasizes social and cultural differences
112
Kohlberg - free will vs determinism
our moral thinking is determined by the pre-determined stages of moral development
113
Lee - free will vs determinism
our moral thinking is determined via the culture we grew up in
114
Kohlberg - usefulness
practical applications:
- parents can understand the stages to understand their child's moral development
- curriculum design
- juvenile justice
115
Lee - usefulness
practical applications:
- morality education programmes (moral values within a culture)
116
Kohlberg - psych as science
- valid
- reliable
- high in control
117
Lee - psych as science
- valid
- reliable
- objective
- control
psychology
flashcards
Decks in class (20)
# Cards
-
mathematical skills45
-
research methods62
-
experiments38
-
self reports29
-
observations20
-
correlations15
-
inferential statistics25
-
inferential tests15
-
how science works5
-
psychological debates38
-
the behaviourist perspective34
-
the psychodynamic perspective49
-
the developmental area117
-
the individual differences area111
-
the social area117
-
the cognitive area110
-
the biological area105
-
metal illness138
-
crime220
-
sport232
