Day 20: Transfer, Problem Solving

Question 1

Gick & Holyoak tried 3 ways to induce transfer

Answer 1

• Subjects were told to summarize story in abstract terms
• A general principle was provided
  
  • “If you need a large force to accomplish some purpose, but are prevented from applying such a force directly, many smaller forces applied simultaneously from different directions may work just as well”
• Create a diagram

Question 2

What worked?

Answer 2

• All 3 ways (summary, general principle, and diagram alone) failed to facilitate transfer
• Subjects were given the two stories and told to write down the basis for the similarity in the story
  • This worked!
  • It’s known as analogical problem solving

Question 3

Gick & Holyoak’s Conclusions

Answer 3

Gick and Holyoak concluded that analogical problem solving depends on three steps:

• Noticing that an analogical connection exists between the source and the target problem
• Mapping corresponding parts of the 2 problems onto each other (fortress= tumor, army= ray)
• Applying the mapping to generate a parallel solution to the target problem (using small groups of soldiers from different directions= sending several weaker rays from different directions)

Question 4

Transfer

Answer 4

• Transfer: When we apply knowledge or skills
  
  • In new ways
  • In new situations
  • In familiar situations with different content

Question 5

Contemporary Perspective

Answer 5

• Transfer is a specific process, not a general one
• Learning occurring at one time can facilitate learning at another time if, in the process, the individual learns how to learn
• Learning processes may not be the only thing to transfer
  
  • Emotions and motivation may transfer too (Ex. Little Albert, PTSD)

Question 6

Transfer from various theoretical perspectives

Answer 6

• Behaviorism: Generalization (i.e., responding in same way to different stimuli because of similarity)
• Information Processing: Encoding information in a way that information or skills can be recalled in appropriate contexts
• Social Cognitive Theory: Latent learning; certain actions will lead to favorable outcomes in other contexts
• Situated Cognition: Transfer is unlikely to occur from one context to another context

Question 7

What facilitates transfer?

Answer 7

• Meaningful learning vs. rote learning
• Thoroughness of learning process (less is more)
• Similarity of situation/context/problem type
• Practice!
• Brief time interval between original and transfer task
• Setting up a classroom culture that expects transfer

Question 8

Types of Transfer

Answer 8

• Vertical vs. Lateral
• Negative vs. Positive
• Near vs. Far
• Low Road vs. High Road

Question 9

Vertical Transfer

Answer 9

• Knowledge of previous topic is essential to acquire new knowledge
  
  • Ex: To understand multiplication, one needs to understand addition

Question 10

Lateral (or Horizontal) Transfer

Answer 10

• Knowledge of previous topic may be helpful- but is not essential- to learn a new topic
  
  • Ex: Knowledge of physics may be helpful for understanding geology

Question 11

Vertical vs. Lateral Transfer: Examples

Answer 11

• V: Learning to multiply -> learning to raise numbers to a power (squaring, cubing, etc.)
• L: Learning psychology -> Learning sociology
• V: Learning to sew -> Learning to embroider
• V: Learning how to use a jack -> Learning to change a tire

Question 12

Positive Transfer

Answer 12

• What is learned in one context enhances learning in a different setting
  
  • Ex: Knowledge of how to create a PowerPoint will help you to make a Prezi

Question 13

Negative Transfer

Answer 13

• What’s learned in one context interferes with learning in another; elements incorrectly identified as being similar
  
  • Ex: Mac vs. PC keyboard shortcuts; using a different computer operating system

Question 14

Positive vs. Negative Transfer

Answer 14

• Learning one Romantic language -> Learning a second Romantic language
• Learning to drive a manual car -> Learning to drive an automatic car

Question 15

Near Transfer

Answer 15

• Old and new contexts are similar; overlap between situations
  
  • Ex: A restaurant where you order at a counter and another where you order at a table

Question 16

Far Transfer

Answer 16

• Old and new contexts are not similar; little overlap between situations
  
  • Ex: A teacher using skills developed in running a classroom to running a business
• Usually requires analysis, deep thinking and seeing similarities that are not always apparent (ex. analogical problem solving)

Question 17

Near vs. Far Transfer Examples

Answer 17

• N: Practice test -> Real test
• F: Statistics Test -> Using software to analyze data for research
• N: Driving a Ford pickup truck -> Driving a Chevy pickup truck
• F: Driving a speedboat -> Sailing a sailboat
• F: Typing on a typewriter -> Typing up Braille
• N: Typing on a typewriter -> Typing on a computer

Question 18

Low Road Transfer

Answer 18

• Transfer of well-established skills happens in an automatic or nearly automatic fashion
  
  • Ex: Taking a multiple choice exam in multiple contexts and domains

Question 19

High Road Transfer

Answer 19

• Purposeful and effortful formulations of ideas about relations and connections among contexts
  
  • Ex: Using knowledge of chess strategy to become an effective politician

Question 20

Near/Far vs. Low-Road/High-Road

Answer 20

• Near vs. Far: Primarily focus on the degree of similarity between the original task an transfer task, as well as contexts
• Low-Road vs. High-Road: Refer to mechanisms of transfer (i.e., how a person approaches the situations: Is it more automatic? Or is there a conscious search for connections?)

Question 21

Well-Defined vs. Ill-Defined

Answer 21

• Well-defined problems
  
  • Clear goals
  • Only one correct solution
  • Structured procedures for reaching a solution
  • All information is specified
  • Ex: How to get a car to mechanic after an accident/ How to earn enough money for down-payment on house/ Chess
• Ill-defined problems
  
  • Ambiguous goals
  • More than one solution
  • No generally agree-upon strategy for reaching a solution
  • One or more features of the problem are not specified or are ambiguous
  • Ex: Writing poetry/ Cleaning your apartment (could be well defined if limits set)/ Learning to play guitar

Question 22

3 Parts of a Problem

Answer 22

• Goal: Desired end state
• Givens: What you are told at the beginning; your starting state
• Operations: Actions that you can perform to reach the goal, including the rules of the game and how to get from one state to another

Question 23

Well-Structured Problem-Solving Process

Answer 23

• Identify the problem goal
• Represent the problem
• Select a strategy
• Implement the strategy
• Evaluate the results

Question 24

Represent the Problem

Answer 24

• Stating in more familiar terms
• Relating to previously experiences problems
• Represent visually

Question 25

Select a strategy, and Implement

Answer 25

- Trial and error - Insight - Heuristics vs. Algorithms - Brainstorming - Means-End Analysis - Working Backward - Drawing Analogies

Question 26

Trial and Error

Answer 26

- Thorndike's Puzzle Box - Trial and error is something we use - Not effective or reliable

Question 27

Insight

Answer 27

- A sudden awareness of a likely solution - An Aha! moment - Research has found 4 steps for insight to occur: - Preparation (time to learn and gather information) - Incubation (time to think) - Inspiration (Eureka!) - Verification (time to test)

Question 28

Silveira (1971): The cheap necklace problem

Answer 28

- "You are given four separate pieces of chain that are each 3 link in length - It costs 2 cents to open a link and 3 cents to close a link - All links are closed at the beginning of the problem - Your goal is to join all 12 links of chain into a single circle at a cost of no more than 15 cents - Control group: Worked on the problem for half an hour - Experimental group 1: Worked for half an hour, interrupted by a half-hour break in which other activities were performed - Experimental group 2: As 1, but with a 4 hour break

Question 29

Heuristics and Algorithms

Answer 29

- A heuristic is a mental shortcut - General method for solving problems that uses rules of thumb, which usually lead to a solution - Informal, intuitive, speculative strategies that sometimes work - An algorithm is a sequence of operations that when repeated over and over again guarantees success - Methodical, but often slow - If you get stuck or forget a step, you can't move on

Question 30

Other methods

Answer 30

- Brainstorming: Generating large number of possible approaches without regard to practicality then evaluate for usefulness - Means-end Analysis: Break problem down into 2+ sub-problems to solve - Working Backward: Start at problem goal and work in reverse toward initial problem state - Analogies: Drawing an analogy between the current problem and another previously solved problem can provide insight (Fortress/Tumor)

Question 31

Evaluate the Results

Answer 31

- "Stop and think about it" step | - Check for evidence that confirms or contradicts your solution

Question 32

Problem-Solving Paradox

Answer 32

- School tends to teach well-defined problems | - In real life, we face problems related to money, careers, social relationships, and happiness that are ill-defined

Question 33

Problem-Based Learning (PBL) (Cindy Hmelo-Silver)

Answer 33

Active approach to learning in which learners collaborate in understanding and solving complex, ill-structured problems

Question 34

PBL Example

Answer 34

- Mr. Ho was a 60 year old machine operator in a garment factory who had enjoyed good health previously. - He has married and had a son and a 4 year old grandson. - The family had lived for 15 years on the 4th floor of a public housing estate with no elevators - Mr. Ho visited his family physician and complained of discomfort in both knees, worse on the right side - Each morning, he had to walk to the bus stop to get to work - In the past few months, he had found this increasingly difficult, particularly when he was walking down the stairs - Additionally, he was not spending as much time playing with his grandson as he used to

Question 35

In Summary

Answer 35

- Transfer is one of the most hotly debated, yet important, issues in education - Does it happen? How? Under what circumstances? How can we facilitate it? - Problem solving is a complex process, but it is the foundation of learning and functioning in the world - Ill structured vs. well structured - In real world problems, there are well structured pieces to ill structured problems - Problem solving is a very specific form of transfer - It's goal-directed, with a specific end in mind