1
Q
what are the main debates?
A
- free will-determinism
- nature-nurture
- holism-reductionism
- nomothetic-ideographic
2
Q
what are the main issues?
A
- gender
- cultural
- ethics
3
Q
What is bias?
A
- the inclination for or against a person or group, especially in a way considered to be inaccurate or unfair
- the effects the psychologist’s own background eg. values, experiences, social and historical influences, etc. may have on a theory or outcome of a study
- it undermines the ability of psychological research/theories to be applied to every human regardless of differing experience (universality).
4
Q
alpha bias
A
- research that exaggerates or overestimates the differences between sexes
- such differences usually devalue individuals sexes experiences/behaviours
- the differences are presented as real, long, and unavoidable.
Eg. sexual behaviours between the sexes (male as promiscuous)
5
Q
beta bias
A
- research ignores, minimises, or underestimates differences between the sexes
- such as when one sex is not included as part of the research yet findings are applied equally to all
> androcentrism
Eg. fight or flight was taken from male only studies, more recent studies have also identified tend or befriend
6
Q
androcentrism
A
- a type of beta bias
- when females are underrepresented yet results are applied to them in the same way
7
Q
what are the consequences of gender bias?
A
- misrepresentation and misunderstanding
- essentialism
8
Q
Misrepresentation and misunderstanding (gender bias)
A
within research, misrepresentation of certain groups can bring about misleading assumptions and therefore misunderstood behaviour. In this manner, biased research:
- fails to challenge negative stereotypes
- validates discriminating practices and beliefs
- provides scientific justification
- can prevent opportunity
9
Q
essentialism (gender bias)
A
- suggests that there are inherent and unchanging characteristics or qualities that define somethings true nature or ‘essence’
- often implies a belief in fixed and permanent properties that define groups or individuals. It can lead to…
- over-simplification
- stereotyping
- elevation of one group or another
10
Q
ways of avoiding or overcoming gender bias
A
- reflexivity
- feminist psychology
- being inclusive
11
Q
reflexivity
A
- this involves the researcher having an awareness of their own beliefs, judgements, biases, values, practices, etc. during the research process
- includes acknowledging and critically reflecting upon their own subjectivity and how it may have influenced results through the design, data collection, and interpretation of findings
- this reduces bias by making researchers confront subjective elements to enhance the rigour and objectivity of their research
12
Q
feminist psychology
A
- an attempt to correct the male dominance/imbalance within psychological theory and research
- ensuring women take part in investigations, are studied in meaningful contexts, and that research focuses on diversity within groups of women too
- often prioritises research topics that have been historically overlooked or underrepresented
13
Q
being inclusive
A
- simplest fix
- including participants of both sexes in research or making it clear within the reporting of findings that any conclusion relates only to the sex/gender of the participants
14
Q
cultural bias
A
- the tendency to ignore cultural differences and interpret all phenomena through the view of ones own culture
- spectrum of bias from ethnocentrism to cultural relativism
15
Q
what is ethnocentrism?
A
- ‘centred around one ethnicity’
> when a researcher judges another culture by the standards of their own culture
> when we impose our own cultural understanding on the rest of the world this is known as an imposed etic
16
Q
example of cultural relativism
A
Margaret Mead identified differences in the gender roles within indigenous tribes of Papua New Guinea
17
Q
what is cultural relativism?
A
- recognising that research may only make sense from the perspective of the culture in which it was carried out
> reduces cultural bias and demonstrates an understanding that ideas/norms/values/moral standards can only be meaningful and understood within specific social and cultural contexts
18
Q
how can cultural relativism also be dangerous?
A
can lead to people not stepping in to help others from other cultures due to a belief that they can’t understand the situation
19
Q
etic
A
looks at behaviour from outside a given culture and attempts to describe such behaviours as universal
20
Q
emic
A
functions from within certain cultures and identifies behaviours that are specific to that culture
21
Q
examples of ethnocentrism
A
Ainsworth’s strange situation, diagnostic manuals (in 1995, African-Carribbeans were 7x more likely to be diagnosed with a mental illness), and intelligence testing
22
Q
Nature
A
(nativists)
- heritability coefficient (a number between 0-1, the extent to which a characteristic has a genetic basis)
- 0 (entirely environmental) to 1 (entirely genetic)
- EG. the heritability coefficient for intelligence is 0.5
23
Q
nurture
A
- Environmental influences such as the social conditions the child grows up in or the cultural and historical context that they are part of
- also includes the prenatal environment the baby develops in
- Lerner (1986) suggested that environmental influences include:
1. Prenatal environment eg. stress, alcohol, etc.
2. Post-natal environment eg. diet, education, role models, etc.
24
Q
Gottesman 1997
A
conducted a large scale family study into concordance rates for Schizophrenia, as genetic similarities increased so did concordance which reinforces the nature side of the debate
25
the interactionist approach
- the notion that nature and nurture are linked to such an extent that it does not make sense to separate them
- researchers instead study how they interact and influence each other
- eg. the diathesis stress model takes an interactionist approach
> eg. Tienari for nature-nurture
26
Tienari et al.
found that in a group of Finnish adoptees, those most likely to develop Schizophrenia had biological relatives with a history of the disorder and relationships with their adoptive families that were defined as dysfunctional.
27
epigenetics
- the study of how your behaviour and environment can cause changes that affect the way your genes work
> eg. lifestyle like smoking, war, and pollution leave 'marks' on our DNA
> these 'marks' tell our bodies which genes to ignore and which ones to use
> these may then go on and influence the genetic codes of our children as well as their children
28
how does epigenetics challenge the nature-nurture debate?
Epigenetics challenges the traditional view of the nature-nurture debate by showing that life experiences can induce epigenetic changes in individual organisms and their offspring
29
example of epigenetic changes - smoking
studies have found that smoking can lead to the inactivation of tumour suppressor genes which can then be passed down to children and grandchildren (recent studies finding a link between grand-maternal smoking and paediatric disease)
30
Example of beta bias, what are the consequences of this?
eg. Zimbardo re-created (with some differences) the Milgram obedience study in 1969 on female university students. He concluded that de-individuation leads to an increase in antisocial behaviour.
> it ignores men, making conclusions about the general population without any representation of males within the sample
> it therefore misrepresents the population, possibly leading to inaccurate beliefs about male behaviour
31
Example of alpha bias, what are the consequences?
eg. Wilson concluded that the reason why 95% of bank managers, company directors, judges, and university professors are male rather than female is because men are more competitive and dominant due to their male hormones.
> it exaggerates the differences between the sexes and undervalues women
> essentialism
> could lead to stereotyping or limit opportunities for women
32
consequences/impact/implications of cultural bias
- misrepresentation and misunderstanding
- essentialism
33
misrepresentation and misunderstanding (cultural bias)
- fails to challenge negative stereotypes
- validates discriminating practices and beliefs
- provides scientific justification
- can prevent opportunity eg. within work
34
essentialism (cultural bias)
- differences are fixed:
- over-simplification
- stereotyping
- elevation of one group over another
35
Ways of Avoiding/Overcoming Cultural Bias in Psychology
- not extrapolating
- cross-cultural research (native researchers)
- being inclusive
36
Do not extrapolate
- we can overcome cultural bias within psychology if researchers do not attempt to extrapolate findings and/or theories to cultures that are not represented in the research sample. - prevents an assumption that universal norms and standards exist across different cultures
37
Cross-cultural research
- instead of sole-cultural research
- preferable to use researchers native to and therefore familiar with and possibly immersed in the culture being investigated
- where non-native researchers are involved, it is important for them to be sensitive to the cultural norms and standards when designing research and reporting findings - this will prevent/reduce the impact of an imposed etic
38
being inclusive (cultural bias)
- overcoming cultural bias by including participants from a range of backgrounds, reflective of the demographic in which the research is being conducted
- or making it clear within the reporting of findings that any conclusion can only relate to those used within the sample
39
example of ethnocentrism and consequence
Eg. Zimbardo's prison study assessed the impacts of a prison environment on American students, the findings highlighted how situation factors can strongly influence behaviour
> it applies findings from one demographic (Americans) to all
> misunderstanding and misrepresentation of other cultures
40
example of cultural relativism and consequence
Eg. Buss (1989) conducted a cross-cultural study into evolution and mate selection including data from the US, Germany, England, The Netherlands, Kenya, India, China, Japan, South Korea, Brazil, Mexico, and Nigeria. He identified similarities and differences between these cultures.
> taking data from a range of areas and considering the impact of culture on the findings
> could have used researchers from within the cultures (emic)
41
social sensitivity
where there are potential social consequences for the participants or the group of people represented by the research leading to a change in, or justification for, the way in which these groups are treated/perceived.
> eg. studies into genetic basis for criminality, race and intelligence, etc.
42
ethical implications
- consider the impact or consequences of socially sensitive topics on the rights of other people in a wider context, not just the participants of research
- we cannot necessarily protect against the social impact of research once it has been published
- eg. interpretation and representation in the media/implementation into policy/influence on societal views of groups cannot be controlled
- so research always has a wider ethical implication that needs to be considered
43
ethical guidelines (vs implications)
Can do/can't do with participants
- deception
- debriefing
- confidentiality
- withdrawal
- consent
- protection from harm
44
ethical implications (vs guidelines)
- impact of research once published
- use of results once published
- ability to maintain control of the results
45
things to think about for ethical considerations
- think about the effects on participants and the wider public
- the potential use of findings - socioeconomic impact, changes to legislation
- potential for bias (discrimination, moral attitudes)
46
free will
- belief that we have some choice in how we act
- assumes that we are free to choose our behaviour
- acknowledges that there are biological and environmental influences but implies that we are able to reject such forces and be in control
47
determinism
- proposes that all behaviour is caused by preceding factors which make behaviour predictable
- these factors may be internal or external and the causal laws that determinism abides by form the basic principles of science
- it ultimately suggests that free will has no place in explaining behaviour
48
hard determinism
- all human behaviour has a cause, it should be possible to identify and describe these causes as is compatible with the aims of science
> psychodynamic, behaviourist, biological approaches
49
soft determinism
- while acknowledging that all human behaviour has a cause, there is room for manoeuvre in that people have conscious mental control
> cognitive approach
50
subtypes of determinism
environmental, psychic, biological, reciprocal
51
environmental determinism
- our 'choice' is merely an illusion, the sum of conditioning and reinforcement that have been present throughout our lives. Often reciprocal.
> behaviourist approach
52
psychic determinism
- there is no such thing as an accident, behaviour is driven by instinct and unconscious conflicts, repressed in childhood.
> psychodynamic approach
53
biological determinism
- behaviour is the result of biological drives that are functioning internally. For example, our genetics, hormones, brain structure, etc. that shape us.
> biological approach
54
reciprocal determinism
- a persons behaviour both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the social environment (coined by Bandura who identified a triad of cognition, environment, and behaviour)
> social learning theory
55
evaluating ethical implications
- cost-benefit discussions
- short-term costs vs long-term gains
- dealing with social sensitivity (identify concerns, consider wider effects, uses IRL, validity of research)
- reflexivity
56
cost-benefit discussions
- critically assess whether the benefit outweighs the potential costs of the research
- knowledge gained, societal advancements, practical applications vs potential harm and negative societal consequences (eg. discrimination)
57
short-term costs vs long-term gains
- evaluate ethical implications in terms of both immediate costs (participants distress/harm) with long-term gains (societal awareness, policy changes)
58
dealing with social sensitivity
- Identify concerns
- Consider wider effects
- Uses/public policy
- Validity of research
59
identify concerns (dealing with social sensitivity)
recognise and address concerns to ensure ethical conduct, researchers should be mindful of potential harm, stigmatisation, or prejudice that might arise from their studies
60
consider wider effects (dealing with social sensitivity)
consider the broader societal implications, highlighting the importance of assessing how research findings might be interpreted and used by the public, potential for reinforcing prejudice/discrimination
61
uses/public policy (dealing with social sensitivity)
how their findings might be interpreted and applied within the real world, this includes considering who is funding the research
62
validity of research (dealing with social sensitivity)
it is important for researchers to be upfront about personal biases and preconceptions by including reflexive discussions, this prevents research from being presented as objective
63
reflexivity (ethical implications
- the importance of self-reflection and ethical responsibilities for researchers
- consider how a researcher's personal biases and values influence the research process
64
evaluation of a freewill stance
+positive outlook, empowering which is good for mind and behaviour
> individuals with an internal locus of control tend to be mentally healthier than external
+ makes us feel in control of our behaviour and in control of changing
- we may not ever have free will, even when we think we do
- can lead to blaming
65
evaluation of a determinist stance
+ predicting behaviour/scientific (can put interventions in place to support people)
+ removes blame
- implications for the judicial system - no accountability
- removes freedom and dignity, devalues human behaviour
- unfalsifiable to claim that there will always be a cause for behaviour
- Roberts et al (2000) found that adolescents with a strong belief in fatalism had a significantly greater risk of depression
66
reductionism
- based on the scientific principle of parsimony (where the simplest explanation is preferred)
- a process of analysing behaviour by breaking it down into its constituent parts
- describing a complex phenomenon in terms of its fundamental aspects
- creates the simplest, easiest and most economical level of explanation, the idea is that this is sufficient
67
holism
- separate parts of a whole are intimately connected, so much so that they cannot exist independently of the whole
- the whole is the most important aspect
- views the breaking down of behaviour as inappropriate as the parts cannot be understood without considering the whole
68
what did Gestalt psychologists declare?
- Gestalt psychologists famously declared that ‘the whole is greater than the sum of its parts’
69
what are the three forms of reductionism?
biological, machine, environmental
70
biological reductionism
- All behaviour is at some level biological since we are all biological organisms made up of physiological structures and processes that are physically testable
- eg. the biological approach
71
machine reductionism
- Behaviour can be explained via an analogy of machine systems
- Simple machine components are used as a means to describe and explain behaviour (input/output, storage, central processors).
- eg. the computer model for memory
72
environmental reductionism
- All behaviour can be explained in terms of stimulus-response links that are learnt through experience
- these behaviours are physically testable therefore excludes mental processes
- eg. operant conditioning
73
levels of reductionism
- the important idea that there are different ways of viewing the same phenomena
- explanations vary from those at a lower level focusing on basic components or units to those at a higher more holistic multivariable level.
74
lowest level of reductionism
physiological
- explores biological processes such as genetics, biochemistry, and brain structure by breaking them down into their constituent parts
75
middle level of reductionism
psychological
- seeks to understand behaviour and mental processes via cognitive, emotional and possibly social factors
76
highest level of reductionism
social/cultural
- analyses complex human behaviours in terms of social interactions, cultural norms, and societal structures
77
interactionist approach to the levels of reductionism
- where several reductionist levels are considered in conjunction with each other
- For example, they might think about how different levels interact with each other e.g. experience impacting our biological make up.
78
Examples of an interactionist approach include in:
- psychoanalysis (interaction in development of components of personality)
- mental health (environmental and biological influence, diathesis stress model)
79
what does holism argues reductionism fails to do?
argues that reductionism doesn’t work because of ‘emergent properties’ which...
- Cannot be reduced to the level below
- Are the result of various interacting components within a system
- Do not belong to any individual components themes
- Cannot, therefore, be observed by looking at individual components.
E.g. Looking at individual neurons will not tell you how the brain works or what it can do
80
examples of holistic approaches
humanism and social psychology (eg. social influence)
81
evaluation of holism
+ meaningfulness (methods like interviews produce richer, more detailed info, take context into account)
+ usefulness (can only understand human experience through studying the whole, importance on the value of experience and feelings/context for understanding behaviour)
- not scientific (not easily testable so often vague and subjective, difficult to establish causal relationships)
82
evaluation of reductionism
+ scientific (easily testable in an objective and empirical way, allows for inference of causal relationships, consistent with the approaches of other sciences)
+ usefulness (development of treatments that can be tested and measured, interactionist approach to the levels eg. diathesis stress model)
- loss of meaning (difficulty to balance objectivity and empiricism with meaningfulness, components do not reflect whole experience particularly at the lower levels, over-simplification)
83
nomothetic approach to research
- the study or discovery of general scientific laws
- aims to produce general laws of human behaviour
- therefore psychologists who adopt this approach are mainly concerned with studying what we share with others to provide a "benchmark" from which others can be compared and behaviour can be predicted/controlled
often quantitative data
84
idiographic approach to research
- related to the study or discovery of unique entities
- aims to discover what makes us all individual
- psychologists who adopt this approach are mainly concerned with the study of personal, subjective experience without a view of comparing or generalising behaviours to a larger group or set of norms
often descriptive data
85
examples of nomothetic research methods
lab, structured interviews, some self-reports, field, natural, some observations
86
examples of idiographic research methods
case studies, unstructured interviews, some self-reports, some observations
87
what makes research nomothetic?
- often large sample sizes
- sampling method gives a representative selection eg. random or stratified
- use a testable hypothesis
- analyses would probably involve quantitative methods eg. statistical testing followed by the drawing of conclusions in relation to a wider population
88
where does biopsychology sit on the Nomo-Idio scale?
- nomothetic
- seeks to portray potential principles, brains scans and religiously tested hypotheses
89
where does behaviourism sit on the Nomo-Idio scale?
- nomothetic
- sought one set of rules for all animals
90
where does social learning theory sit on the Nomo-Idio scale?
- nomothetic
- general laws of behaviour and learning, lab experiments
91
where does the cognitive approach sit on the Nomo-Idio scale?
- aimed to develop general laws of behaviour that apply to all however also uses case studies of rare/abnormal instances
92
where does humanism sit on the Nomo-Idio scale?
- idiographic
- studying the whole person and from their perspective, antiscientific, more concerned with unique experience
93
where does Freud (eg. Little Hans) sit on the Nomo-Idio scale?
- idiographic
- looked at individual cases to explore theories, Hans - 150 pages of quotes, descriptions, and interpretations (qualitative data)
94
evaluation of a nomothetic approach to research
+ more scientific, standardisation and statistical analysis
+ allows psychologists to establish norms of 'typical' behaviour
- reductionist, easy to lose the whole person
- overlooks the richness of human experience
95
evaluation of an idiographic approach to research
+ complete and global account of individuals
+ may support general laws or act as the basis for further study
- subjective and therefore there is a risk of bias
96
psychology
flashcards
Decks in class (15)
# Cards
-
origins of psychology19
-
the learning approach56
-
research methods187
-
the psychodynamic approach54
-
exam stuff3
-
the humanistic approach21
-
the cognitive approach27
-
the biological approach36
-
attachment134
-
memory111
-
social influence112
-
psychopathology124
-
debates and issues96
-
forensic psychology119
-
schizophrenia54
