the learning approach

Question 1

John Locke

Answer 1

(1632-1704) argued that the mind is a ‘blank slate at birth upon which learning and experience writes: the result of the environment’

Question 2

who argued that the mind begins as a blank slate?

Answer 2

John Locke (and the behaviourist approach later based on his ideas)

Question 3

the behaviourist approach

Answer 3

• believe that we are born a blank slate, based on John Locke’s ideas
• focus on nurture not nature
• classical and operant conditioning

Question 4

key assumptions of the behaviourist approach

Answer 4

• behaviour is the result of the environment and we learn through experiences (extreme ‘nurture’ end of nature-nurture debate)
• only interested in observable and measurable behaviour
• relies on lab experiments as its method of research as these are the most scientific, controlled, and objective
• the basic processes that cause learning are the same in all species (so would test on animals, assuming it would be the same as in humans)

Question 5

two main forms of learning in behaviourism

Answer 5

classical and operant conditioning

Question 6

classical conditioning

Answer 6

(dogs)
- learning through ASSociation (clASSical) discovered by Pavlov, a Russian physiologist
- he said we learn through associating two stimuli together
- classical conditioning takes place when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together

Question 7

overview process of classical conditioning

Answer 7

1. unconditioned stimulus (food) > unconditioned response (salivation)
2. neutral stimulus (bell) > no response
3. neutral stimulus (bell) + unconditioned stimulus (food) > unconditioned response (salivation)
4. (repeated)
5. conditioned stimulus (bell) > conditioned response (salivation)

Question 8

worded explanation of Pavlov’s classical conditioning

Answer 8

An unconditioned stimulus (US) such as food is presented to the dog triggering the unconditioned response (UR) of salivation. The bell begins as a neutral stimulus (NS) because it triggers no response from the dog. The bell (NS) is then rung at the same time as giving the dog food (US), producing an unconditioned response of salivation as the two stimuli are associated. After several pairings the conditioned stimulus (ringing of the bell) will produce a conditioned response (salivation) even without the presence of food (the US).

Question 9

neutral stimulus

Answer 9

something in the environment which does not initially cause a response eg. the bell

Question 10

unconditioned stimulus

Answer 10

anything that naturally has the power to produce a response in a human or animal eg. food

Question 11

unconditioned response

Answer 11

a natural reflex response to an unconditioned stimulus eg. salivation

Question 12

conditioned stimulus

Answer 12

the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus when it acquires the ability to produce a specific response in the human or animal eg. bell

Question 13

extinction (in terms of classical conditioning)

Answer 13

when a conditioned stimulus (eg. the bell) is experienced without the unconditioned stimulus (food) for some time the conditioned response (salivation) disappears - it is extinguished

Question 14

spontaneous recovery

Answer 14

when, after extinction, a previously conditioned association (for example, salivating to the sound of a bell) reoccurs without more conditioning. The response to the stimulus reoccurs spontaneously.

Question 15

stimulus generalisation

Answer 15

when stimuli similar to the CS produces the CR (eg. the dog will salivate to stimuli similar to bells such as the doorbell)

Question 16

what is the type of conditioning in which an individual learns through association?

Answer 16

clASSical conditioning (ASSociation)

Question 17

operant conditioning

Answer 17

(rats)
- skinner (1953) suggested learning is an active process whereby humans and animals operate on their environment
- we learn through consequences
- we form a link between a behaviour and an event
- the idea is that when people behave in a particular way and are rewarded for that behaviour, they will repeat it (called reinforcement). If they are punished for that behaviour they will stop it.

Question 18

Skinner’s box

Answer 18

when placed in the Skinner box the animal has to press a lever in order to open a food lever and thus obtain reinforcement in the form of food. First, by accident, the lever is pressed and food was presented. This meant the rat got reinforced to repeat the behaviour as he got rewarded with food (positive reinforcement).

Question 19

possible consequences in operant conditioning

Answer 19

positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, or negative punishment

Question 20

positive reinforcement

Answer 20

• receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed, this behaviour is reinforced, likely to do this behaviour again
• eg. the rat receiving food for pressing the lever

Question 21

negative reinforcement

Answer 21

• something unpleasant is removed from the individual following a behaviour, the behaviour is reinforced and likely to be repeated
• eg. stopping the electric shocks when a lever is pressed

Question 22

punishment

Answer 22

• an unpleasant consequence for carrying out a behaviour, the behaviour is weakened, the probability of repeating the behaviour is decreased
• eg. the rat presses a lever and receives an electric shock

Question 23

positive punishment

Answer 23

• something unpleasant is introduced (added) following a behaviour

Question 24

negative punishment

Answer 24

• something is nice is removed (subtracted)

Question 25

difference between reinforcement and punishment

Answer 25

reinforcement - more likely to do it again punishment - less likely to do it again

Question 26

what is the type of conditioning in which an individual learns through reinforcement?

Answer 26

operant conditioning (Skinner's research)

Question 27

practical applications for operant conditioning

Answer 27

- token economy in prisons (given tokens or coins when they carry out desirable behaviour) - form of positive reinforcement - helps to shape inmates behaviour

Question 28

practical applications for classical conditioning

Answer 28

- use it to understand the development of phobias (we associate the fear with an otherwise neutral stimulus) - allows us to treat phobias by helping them to unlearn old associations and to form new ones

Question 29

nature vs nurture

Answer 29

nature - behaviour is based on genetic factors nurture - behaviour is a product of experiences

Question 30

behaviourism on the nature vs nurture argument

Answer 30

behaviourism is nurture - believe in the blank slate theory/that we are products of our environment

Question 31

reductionism vs holism

Answer 31

reductionism - breaking behaviour down holism - looking at behaviour as a whole

Question 32

behaviourism on the reductionism/holism argument

Answer 32

behaviourism is reductionist - not looking at internal mental processes

Question 33

determinism vs free will

Answer 33

determinism - behaviour is determined by preceding factors free will - we can choose our behaviour

Question 34

behaviourism on the determinism/free will argument

Answer 34

behaviourism is determinist - we are a result of our previous learning experiences

Question 35

evaluation points for behaviourism (operant and classical)

Answer 35

EVALUATION POINTS - reductionist (over-simplifying) - practical applications - scientific methods - use of animals

Question 36

Little Albert experiment

Answer 36

(1920) - Watson and Raynor presented Little Albert with a white rat and he showed no fear - Watson then presented the rat with a loud bang that started Little Albert and made him cry - After the continuous association of the white rat and loud noise, Little Albert was classically conditioned to experience fear at the sight of the rat - Albert's fear generalized to other stimuli that were similar to the rat, including a fur coat, some cotton wool, and a Father Christmas mask.

Question 37

questions answered by the Little Albert experiment

Answer 37

1. Can an infant be conditioned to fear an animal that appears simultaneously with a loud, fear-arousing sound? 2. Would such fear transfer to other animals or to inanimate objects? 3. How long would such fears persist?

Question 38

what is the social learning theory?

Answer 38

Another 'learning approach' but SEPERATE to the behaviourist approach. Albert Bandura who proposed this approach, believed that classical and operant conditioning (behaviourism) couldn't explain all human leaning. He therefore created a new theory which expanded on some behaviourist ideas and most importantly took into account the important mental processes in learning.

Question 39

key assumptions of the social learning theory

Answer 39

- behaviour is learned from experience (nurture) - we learn through observation and imitation of others - agrees with behaviourism that learning can occur directly (conditioning) BUT also indirectly (through others

Question 40

role models and identification

Answer 40

- in order to learn from a role model, it is important for us to identify with them - factors of identification may be personality, age, gender, upbringing, appearance - if an individual has these factors, they are more likely to influence us, whether they are physically present or not

Question 41

vicarious learning

Answer 41

- a type of indirect learning that takes place when we observe someone else's behaviour - we watch and learn about the likely consequences of an action and then decide whether we will copy that behaviour ourselves or not - Eg. if we see our older sister wash up and she gets a reward, we may decide to wash up in future.

Question 42

what are mediational processes? what 4 did Bandura identify?

Answer 42

- SLT is described as the bridge between behaviourism and the cognitive approach. This is because it considers the cognitive elements involved in learning - these mental factors mediate (intervene) in the learning process to determine whether a new response is require. Albert Bandura identified 4 mediational processes: 1. attention 2. retention 3. motor reproduction 4. motivation

Question 43

attention

Answer 43

- a mediational process identified by Albert Bandura - relates to the learning of a behaviour - the extent to which we pay 'attention' to / notice other people's behaviour. We are more likely to pay attention if we identify with the model.

Question 44

retention

Answer 44

- a mediational process identified by Albert Bandura - relates to the learning of a behaviour - How well we are able to remember (retain) the behaviour we have seen. We are more likely to remember it if we like what have seen.

Question 45

(motor) reproduction

Answer 45

- a mediational process identified by Albert Bandura - relates to the performance of a behaviour - evaluate our own ability to copy the behaviour. If it is too easy or too hard we might not try, it has to be the right level of challenge.

Question 46

motivation

Answer 46

- a mediational process identified by Albert Bandura - relates to the performance of a behaviour - wanting to reproduce the behaviour. This tends to come in the form of a valued reward. If the reward is not valued or the behaviour is punished, we are less motivated to imitate.

Question 47

the process of imitation

Answer 47

A child's learning is acquired through imitation of attitudes and behaviour that is modelled by parents and other significant people. When a model is provided, behaviour can be very quickly acquired, eg. Bandura's research. - James Bulger case

Question 48

evaluation points for social learning theory

Answer 48

+ supporting research (scientific and falsifiable) + practical applications (impacted media and age ratings) + considered internal mental processes + explains cultural differences in behaviour - over-reliance on lab study evidence (low external validity, low mundane realism, demand characteristics, ethics) - underestimates biological factors

Question 49

the bobo doll experiment (A)

Answer 49

- Bandura et al. (1961) - recorded the behaviour of young children who watched an adult behave in an aggressive way towards a Bobo doll - the adult hit the doll with a hammer and then shouted abuse at it - when these children then behaved much more aggressively towards the doll and the other toys than those who had observed a non-aggressive adult - this shows imitation and social learning

Question 50

the bobo doll experiment (B)

Answer 50

- Bandura and Richard Walters, in 1963 - showed videos to children where an adult behaved aggressively towards the Bobo doll - one group of children saw the adult praised for their behaviour (being told "well done") - a second group saw the adult punished for their aggression towards the doll by being told off - the third group (control) saw the aggression without any consequence. - when given their own Bobo doll to play with, the first group showed much more aggression, followed by the third group, and then the second. - shows operant conditioning and social learning

Question 51

James Bulger case

Answer 51

- the debate as to whether Bandura's Bobo doll experiments had implications for the media was brought into focus in 1990 following the death of James Bulger - he was a toddler from Liverpool murdered by two ten-year-old boys - at the time it was argued by many newspapers that the killers were inspired by the horror film Child's Play 3 - as a result there were calls for rules and censorship in media - many researchers do dispute the link between media and real-world violence, eg. Guy Cumberbatch et al. (2001)

Question 52

Guy Cumberbatch et al. (2001)

Answer 52

- disputed the link between media and real-world violence - argues that supposed 'video nasties' of the type cited in the Bulger case are more likely to frighten children than make them aggressive - he argues that isolated incidents such as these are better explained by other factors such as social deprivation, child abuse and early exposure to violence in the home

Question 53

explanation of abnormal behaviour in the behaviourist approach

Answer 53

- faulty learning - negative associations leading to a fear response

Question 54

treatment of abnormal behaviour in the behaviourist approach

Answer 54

- flooding (immediate exposure) - systematic desensitisation (gradual exposure)

Question 55

explanation of abnormal behaviour in social learning theory

Answer 55

negative role models

Question 56

treatment of abnormal behaviour in social learning theory

Answer 56

CBT