1
Q
Why do we care about lifespan learning? (3)
A
- Allows us to explore individual differences in development and ageing/aging
- Teaches us about plasticity
- Allows us to maximize our potential
2
Q
Memory Development: Infancy to Childhood - 2 study caveats
A
- Developmental trends represent averages
- Variability exists within a cohort (e.g., the huge diversity of standardized test scores for high school seniors; diversity in language acquisition).
3
Q
Immediately after birth, human infants demonstrate learning abilities in 3 domains:
A
- Language
- Social Skills
- Motor Control
4
Q
Does learning only occur after birth?
A
- NO - evidence of learning even before birth
5
Q
Non-declarative Memory in Infants?: Instrumental Conditioning
A
2-month-old infants learned to kick to move a colourful mobile
6
Q
Non-declarative Memory in Infants?: Context-Dependent Learning
A
If crib liner with a new pattern was used, babies didn’t kick
7
Q
Non-declarative Memory in Infants?: Classical Conditioning
A
Human and rat infants learn eye-blink conditioning
8
Q
How is declarative memory measured?
A
- Difficult to study in young children because they do not have the verbal skills to “declare” what they remember
- Declarative memory studies are conducted in children who are old enough to speak
9
Q
Development of Declarative Memory Study: what were children provided with?
A
- “What animal can’t make any sounds?”
- Presented by an experimenter or a puppet
10
Q
Development of Declarative Memory Study: test (1-week delay)
A
- “What animal can’t make any sounds?” (semantic memory)
- Semantic recall increased with age
- Who said it = episodic memory -> how do children do?
11
Q
Sensitive Periods for Learning?
A
Some learning abilities are only available, or are more readily available, early in life, during the so-called sensitive or critical period, after which some forms of learning may become difficult or impossible.
12
Q
Sensitive periods for learning - Imprinting
A
- Forming a close bond with the first individual seen after birth
- Common in birds, but also occurs in other species (some mammals)
- Bond forms best immediately after birth; after this period, harder to form
13
Q
Sensitive Periods for Social Attachment? MONKEY EXAMPLE
A
- In a study, rhesus monkeys were isolated from their mothers (Harlow studies)
- In adolescence, they were moved to group cages
- Showed social deficits
14
Q
Sensitive Periods for Social Attachment? ENVIRONMENT EXAMPLE
A
- In many of these studies involving both humans and non-human animals, younger children perform better when exposed to enriched or healthier environments, which can alleviate certain impairments.
- This exposure should occur earlier in life to be most effective.
15
Q
Sensitive Periods for Language
A
- Skills for phonetic discrimination can diminish during development for sound distinctions not utilized in the languages to which a person is exposed.
- Individuals become perceptual learning experts for their language.
16
Q
Second-language acquisition in childhood?
A
Although this is a subject of debate, second-language acquisition is generally believed to be easier during childhood.
17
Q
Adolescence: Childhood to Adulthood - development of… (2)
A
Strong development of working memory and central executive function during adolescence through adulthood
18
Q
Aging Memory: Adulthood to Old Age - age-related declines? What type of memory is first affected?
A
- Adult abilities can remain stable for many years
- Unfortunately, the overall trend is a decline in most basic memory and learning skills
- Working memory is often one of the first areas to display age-related decline
- There may be effects related to menopause (video)
19
Q
Age-related declines in non-declarative memory?
A
- Classical conditioning begins to decline at ages 40 to 50, taking potentially twice as long in older adults compared to young adults.
- Skill learning decreases as well (a bit later).
20
Q
Age-related declines in semantic + episodic memory: what shows LESS decline?
A
The ability to retain and retrieve older episodic and semantic memories shows less decline during healthy aging.
21
Q
Age-related declines in semantic + episodic memory: what shows MORE decline?
A
- the ability to form new episodic and semantic memories does decline with age.
- Similar pattern for other forms of learning (e.g., skills)
22
Q
Aging Memory: Adulthood to Old Age - compensation?
A
- Although learning new information declines, older adults have more prior experience to draw on.
- This richer pool of experience can often compensate for diminished abilities and enable performance of even complex tasks at the same or better level than in young adults!
23
Q
The Developing Brain - Human brain development is strongly influenced by…
A
both genes and the environment
24
Q
Human brain development features competition between… + survival based on…
A
- Overproduction
- Competition for a limiting resource
25
How fast do neurons develop after conception?
## Footnote
The Developing Brain: Competing Neurons
Neurons are **produced very rapidly a few weeks after conception, at a rate of up to 250,000 per minute**.
26
Production of neurons is complete by...
## Footnote
The Developing Brain: Competing Neurons
Production is mostly complete **by 25 weeks**, ***although the connections between neurons are not fully established.***
27
Are neurons over- or under-produced?
## Footnote
The Developing Brain: Competing Neurons
More neurons are produced than necessary.
28
What happens to unsuccessful neurons?
## Footnote
The Developing Brain: Competing Neurons
Unsuccessful neurons undergo **apoptosis**, or **programmed cell death, which may eliminate up to one-third of the neurons initially produced**
29
Are synapses under- or over-produced? What about weaker connections?
## Footnote
The Developing Brain: Competing Neurons
A similar trajectory occurs for synapses, where more are created than needed, and weaker connections are pruned accordingly
30
Brain Changes in Adolescence - **Adolescence corresponds to changes throughout the brain, but especially in the...**
Frontal cortex
31
Brain Changes in Adolescence: **Synaptic Changes**
* **Strong synaptogenesis** (new synaptic connections), especially in the frontal cortex, just before adolescence; pruning throughout adolescence and early adulthood
32
Brain Changes in Adolescence: **Myelination**
Most myelination occurs after birth, not complete until around 18 years, especially in the frontal cortex
33
Brain Changes in Adolescence: **Modulation**
Dramatic **increase in dopamine inputs** during adolescence
34
The Brain from Adulthood to Old Age
* Even **healthy aging is associated with brain deterioration, including decreased synaptic density**
* The **loss is uneven across brain areas and correlates with a decline in skills.** (frontal cortex shows substantial loss)
* **Even where the number of neurons and synapses remains stable, the wiring may become less stable and functional**
35
The Brain from Adulthood to Old Age - **Stability in Rats PROCEDURE**
* “Place cells” in the rat hippocampus were mapped during exploration of a maze.
* Rats were returned to the same maze later, and place cells were remapped.
36
The Brain from Adulthood to Old Age - **Stability in Rats RESULTS**
* For **young** rats, **the same place cells encoded *identical* locations within the maze (top panel).**
* For **older** rats, **the same place cells were activated in *different* areas of the maze (bottom panel).**
37
The Brain from Adulthood to Old Age - **Stability in Rats RESULTS FOR OLDER RATS**
* Older rats maintained some level of behavioural performance in the maze but **exhibited reduced stability in the place cell firing patterns.**
38
Alzheimer's Disease
Alzheimer’s Disease (AD)—a form of **progressive cognitive decline from accumulating brain deterioration**
39
Alzheimer's Disease - **3-step progression**
1. **Episodic** memory loss (e.g. recent visitors)
2. **Semantic** memory loss (familiar names, locations)
3. **Conditioning and skill learning**
40
Late stage AD can involve...
a lack of awareness and daily living skills
41
AD: Amyloid plaques
Deposits of **beta-amyloid** (abnormal byproduct of amyloid presursor protein, **kills adjacent neurons**)
42
AD: Neurofibrillary tangles
**Collapsed protein scaffolding** within neurons
43
Genetic Basis of Alzheimer’s Disease?
* Several genes are implicated in AD (either deterministic or risk-increasing)
* Less than 1 percent of AD cases = early-onset + genetic (deterministic)
* Environmental influences are also important
44
Aging Related Brain Damage: Other Examples - STROKE
* **Affects the arteries that communicate with the brain**
* **Part of the brain cannot get the blood (and oxygen)**
* Neurons will die
45
Types of Stroke
* **Ischemic Stroke**: **a blood clot** in an artery obstructs blood flow. **Neurons lose their oxygen** and glucose supply (much more common).
* **Hemorrhagic Stroke**: **blood vessel ruptures. Neurons receive excess oxygen** and other substances, which can lead to neuron death (much less common).
46
Behavioral Consequences of Stroke
* Numbness, weakness in the face, arm, leg (one side of body)
* Sudden, severe headache
* Blurred vision
* Confusion, difficulty speaking
* Dizziness, loss of balance/coordination
* Loss of cognitive function, including learning and memory
47
Recovery after Brain Injury
* Recovery after brain injury ranges from subtle to significant
* Recovery can happen at all ages. Though the younger brain may be more plastic, older brains can show recovery too!
48
Some General Mechanisms
* **Unmasking**: Normally latent (silent) projections become functional following injury to other projections
* Can help with the formation of new behavioral strategies to perform affected functions
* Restoration of function of neurons that were damaged
* Change in structure and function of undamaged neurons (e.g., new synapses)
49
Principles of Recovery - what era of development is best?
* **Recovery is better in infants and children**
* Developing nervous system shows more rearrangement, compensation and growth
* e.g., stroke in infants = substantial functional recovery
50
Promoting Recovery (3)
1. **Behavioral rehab** e.g., practice, exercise, motivation
2. **Drugs** (mostly to prevent further damage; subsequent strokes)
3. **Experimental approaches** (e.g., transcranial magnetic stimulation to promote plasticity)
PSYC 333
flashcards
Decks in class (29)
# Cards
-
Best Practices for Remembering in the Classroom19
-
Reading 110
-
History of Memory27
-
Reading 20
-
Neuroscience Basics21
-
Neuroscience Basics: Neuroimaginggg37
-
Reading 30
-
Intro to Long-term Memory; Episodic / Semantic Memory39
-
Reading 40
-
Episodic / Semantic Memory Part 219
-
Reading 50
-
MIDTERM 10
-
Remembering Time34
-
Emotional Memory Pt. 131
-
Emotional Memory Pt. 218
-
Memory in the Courtroom26
-
Working Memory33
-
Memory and Technology16
-
Non-Declarative Memory31
-
Reading - Memory in the Courtroom3
-
Reading - Memory & Technology, PODCAST2
-
M20
-
Future-Thinking14
-
Development + Aging50
-
Replication11
-
Memory, Mental Health, and Beyond41
-
Exercise, Sleep, Diet22
-
Reading/Replication5
-
Naturalistic Neuroscience13
