1
Q
qualitative developmental change
A
- differences between adults and children are qualitative, not quantitative
- periods of little change alternate with periods of abrupt and rapid change
2
Q
quantitative developmental change
A
- differences between adults and children are quantitative, not qualitative
- development is continuous - new abilities, skills, and knowledge develop gradually over time
3
Q
microsystem
A
- everyday environment that a person is in
- school, work, home, neighborhood, etc.
4
Q
mesosystem
A
- interactions between microsystem
- school & home, work & friends, etc.
5
Q
exosystem
A
- relationship between two or more settings, with at least one of the entities only indirectly affecting the person
- example parents + parent’s workplace policies, legal/social services available
6
Q
macrosystem
A
- systems that are involved in the environment
- culture, religion, economy, politics
7
Q
chronosystem
A
- refers to the passage of time in an individuals life and the changes that take place over time
- birth of a sibling, moving to a new neighborhood
8
Q
genotype vs. phenotype
A
genotype = genetic make up of a person, contains both expressed and unexpressed characteristics
phenotype = observable characteristics of the person
9
Q
normative vs. non-normative influences on development
A
normative = events that occur in a similar way for most people
non-normative = events that are unusual and have a major impact on an individual’s life
10
Q
sex chromosomes (ovum, sperm, zygote, female, male)
A
- ovum = X
- sperm = X or Y
- sperm + ovum = zygote
- XX = female
- XY = male
11
Q
Down’s syndrome vs. phenylketonuria (PKU)
A
Down’s
- 3 chromosomes on chromosome 21
- intellectual disability, broad skull, slanted eyes, physical deformities, reduced activity
PKU
- inherited autosomal recessive disorder
- severe mental deficiency
- special diet required
- if detected early, side effects can be prevented
12
Q
sexual dimorphism
A
- systematic differences between individuals of different sex
- example = different levels/types of hormones at different stages of life
13
Q
moro reflex
A
- baby extending legs/arms/fingers and arching back in response to being startled
14
Q
rooting reflex
A
- baby turning the head, opening the mouth, and sucking when their cheek is stroked
15
Q
babinski reflex
A
- baby spreading toes and twisting the foot when sole of the foot is stroked
16
Q
grasp reflex
A
- baby makes a firm fist around an object that is placed in the hand
17
Q
perceptual development
A
- touch = first
- hearing and smell = well developed at birth
- vision = least developed at birth
- tase - preference for sweet
- pain = present at birth. Exposure to painful procedures for full term babies increases pain responsivity. But REDUCES pain responsivity for preterm babies.
18
Q
primary vs. secondary aging
A
primary = inevitable changes in physical and mental processes, aging in genetically controlled
secondary = disease, disuse, neglect of the body
19
Q
social buffer hypothesis
A
- a person’s perception of having an adequate social network (a good support network can reduce the risk of emotional distress)
20
Q
stages of language development (crying, cooing, babbling, word comprehension, echolalia, first words, holophrasic & telegraphic speech)
A
- crying
- cooing 6-8weeks
- babbling 3-6months
- word comprehension 8-9months
- echolalia 9months
- first words 10-15months
- holophrasic speech (single word to express entire thought) 12-15 months
- telegraphic speech (putting 2 words together to express an entire thought) 18-24months
21
Q
nativist view of language development (Chomsky)
A
- Noam Chomsky
- believed children are born with an innate language acquisition device (LAD) that prewires us for language
- only minimal exposure to adult language is necessary
22
Q
natu*rist view of language development (learning theory)
A
- language is acquired by interacting with the environment and through a process of imitation and reinforcement
*focus on u in word to know it’s learning vs natIvist (Chomsky)
23
Q
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
A
- speakers of different languages think differently because of the structure of their languages
*support for this hypothesis is mixed
24
Q
components of verbal language
A
Phonemes → smallest units of sound (d, sh)
Morphemes → smallest units of language that have meaning (words, suffixes, prefixes like do, dog, ing, er (latter ones can be combined to make word). Free morpheme (test, certain) and bound morpheme (pre in pretest and un in uncertain)
Semantics → meaning of words, phrases, sentences. LITERAL meaning*
Syntax → how words are organized into phrases and words
Pragmatics → how language is used in a social context to communicate effectively (example = taking turns in conversations, tone of voice). Understanding of non literal language (sarcasm/humour)
25
assimilation vs. accommodation
assimilation = taking a new experience and incorporating it into existing cognitive structures (example - seeing an airplane and calling it a bird)
accommodation = reorganizing / modifying existing cognitive structures (example = putting the plane in a different/new category than birds)
26
declage
- the varying rate that children move through stages, tasks mastered at different stages.
- the unevenness within a child's cognitive development
27
preoperational stage
(Piaget's 4 stages of cognitive development)
- ages 2-7
- increased use of symbols and language
- intuitive thinking develops, logical thinking not yet present
- very egocentric (unable to understand the perspective of another person)
- animism, irreversibility, centration all present
28
concrete operational stage
(Piaget's 4 stages of cognitive development)
- ages 7-11
- child can operate and act on real or imagined concrete objects
29
formal operational stage
(Piaget's 4 stages of cognitive development)
- ages 11- end of adolescence
- abstract thinking, hypothetical thinking, metacognition all developing / present
30
Vygotsky's social development theory of cognition
- all higher cognitive functions (language, thinking, memory) begin with relationships child has with others
31
scaffolding
- adjusting the level of help given to a child based on their performance
- zone of proximal development represents what a child can do independently and what they can go with guidance (instruction / help should be targeted towards a level just above the child's current level)
32
crystallized intelligence vs. fluid intelligence
crystallized intelligence = practiced and overlearned skills that are predominantly verbal, remains intact with aging and may even improve. Depends on prior learning/experience, affected by cultural experiences. Good for tasks: general information, vocabulary, numerical reasoning.
fluid intelligence = capacity for problem-solving in novel situations, peaks in adolescence and then gradually declines. Doesn’t depend on learning/experience, culture free. Good for tasks: involve inductive/deductive reasoning, ability to solve novel problems, encode short term memories.
33
separation vs. individuation
(Margaret Mahler)
separation = process of becoming a discrete physical entity by physically distancing
individuation = process of becoming a psychologically independent person
34
separation anxiety vs. stranger anxiety
separation anxiety
- once a child becomes able to physically separate themselves from others (crawling, walking, etc.), separation anxiety increases
stranger anxiety
- once a child becomes able to distinguish themselves as separate from other people, they become increasingly aware of anyone unfamiliar
35
protest, despair, detachment
(Bowlby; attachment)
- when separated from person they are attached to, the child will PROTEST (cry, calling out, search for the person)
- if separation continues, DESPAIR (child will become hopeless of the person's return)
- if separation persists, the child will emotionally DETACH themselves from the person
36
strange situation procedure
(Mary Ainsworth; attachment)
- procedure looks at how infants organize their behaviour around the attachment figure when they are mildly stressed in a strange room
- the child encounters an unfamiliar adult and is then left briefly by the person they are attached to
37
secure attachment
- baby is warm and responsive
- moderate distress when mom leaves, enthusiastic when mom returns
caregiving style: sensitive, responsive
38
avoidance attachment
- baby does not seek closeness with mother, treat her as a stranger
- does not cry when mom leaves, may ignore her when she returns
caregiving style: either aloof/distant, or intrusive/overstimulating
39
ambivalent (resistant) attachment (think resist separation)
- baby is clingy, does not explore environment, displays anger towards mom, upset when mom leaves the room
- happy when mom returns but show ambivalence by rejecting comforting behaviours
caregiving style: inconsistent, insensitive
40
disorganized (disoriented) attachment
- baby has no clear strategy for dealing with mom leaving
- unresponsive when mom returns, sometimes will avoid or resist
- may exhibit fear / confusion towards mom
caregiving style: neglectful, abusive
41
authoritarian parents
- expect unquestioned obedience
- demanding, controlling, threatening, punishing
- results in children who are mood, irritable, discontent, withdrawn, distrustful, and sometimes aggressive, low levels of academic achievement
- high risk of externalizing behaviours throughout lifespan (aggression, disruption and oppositional). & risk of being a bully to others.
42
permissive indifferent parents (rejecting/neglecting or uninvolved parents)
- worst outcomes of all.
- set few limits, provide little monitoring, are generally detached and uninvolved
- children end up with poor self-control, moody/irritable, are demanding, minimally compliant, and have poor interpersonal skills and poor academic achievement, prone to drug use and antisocial behaviour
43
permissive indulgent parents
- loving and emotionally available, but set few limits/demands/controls
- children end up impulsive, immature, and out of control, risk of victim of bullying
44
authoritative parents
- caring and emotionally available, yet firm, fair, and responsible
- set expectations, provide structure
- children end up competent, confident, independent, cooperative, and at ease in social situations
45
stages of gender role development
gender roles = social expectations for appropriate male/female behaviour, begin at birth and develop throughout life
gender identity = the individual's perception of themself as either male or female, usually achieved by age of 3 at the latest
gender constancy = recognition that gender does not change (dressing or behaviour does not change gender), usually achieved by age of 5-6
46
5 states of facing death
(Kubler-Ross; DABDA)
- denial/disbelief
- anger
- bargaining
- depression
- acceptance
(DABDA)
47
justice perspective vs. caring perspective
(Carol Gilligan; moral reasoning)
- males generally prefer to emphasize fairness, women prefer to emphasize their responsibilities to specific people
48
sex and aging
- sex drive generally does not diminish with age
- people who are sexually active typically tend to stay sexually active in their older age
- men can usually engage in sexual activities until 70-80 years old, woman can engage as long as they live
- men tend to have more opportunities / partners than women
49
health belief model
- health behaviour results from the joint influence of psychosocial factors (demographics, peer pressure), perceived susceptibility/severity of a disease, perceived benefits/barriers to preventative actions
50
3 depth cues and order they develop (KBP)
Kinetic, binocular and pictorial. (Note: stereoscopic cue is another name for binocular cue).
*kinetic cue develops at 1-3months
*binocular cue develops at 3-5months
*pictorial cue develops at 5-7months
51
Age that separation anxiety & stranger anxiety develop
Sep - starts @ 6-8months, peaks in intensity @ 14-18months (after 1st bday/ around time moms go back to work) and then gradually decreases
Stranger @ 8 months** and declines at 24 months (2yrs)
52
Parten concluded that the six types of social participation emerge sequentially and progress from least to most complex in terms of social interaction and cooperation. List them in order. (USO-PAC)
unoccupied behavior, solitary play, onlooker behavior, parallel play, associative play, and cooperative play.
53
Full term, Low birthweight, Preterm birth & small for date infants
Full term: 37-42 weeks (aka 37+)
Preterm: before 37 weeks. Highest for non Hispanic black moms. Lowest Asian mothers. Bad outcomes: immune system issues, respiratory problems, cognitive impairments.
Low BW: less than 5 1/2 pounds at birth.
Small for date: worst of all/preterm. BW below 10th percentile. More likely to die within 12 weeks after birth, brain damage, and high risk of infection, learning/behaviour problems.
54
Big 5 personality research on traits during adulthood and marriage
Traits during adulthood:
- decrease: neuroticism
- stays the same, or decreases slightly: extraversion & openness to exp
- increases: agreeableness & conscientiousness
Marriage: high levels of neuroticism linked with marital dissatisfaction, increased risk for separation or divorce and a number of negative outcomes
55
Self conscious emotions & when they emerge & primary emotions & when they emerge
(CID-SSAJDF) (EEE-PSG)
Primary (CID - SSAJDF)
1st: contentment, interest & distress (birth-18 months)
Later: joy, surprise, sadness, disgust, anger & fear (@ 6months)
Self concious (EEE- PSguilt)
1st: Embarrassment, envy (jealousy) & empathy @ 18-24months (before 2)
Later: pride, shame and guilt @ 30-36 months
56
Research has found that gay men are more likely than straight men to have what?
A later birth order (be younger)
And have 1 or more older brothers
57
Selman’s stages of friendship (Levels 0-4)
Level 0- friends with those who live nearby (momentary) - think 0 for nothing done just friends bc they live close
Level 1- friends with those who do nice things for them (one way).. think 1 for do 1 nice thing for me and I’ll be your friend
Level 2- concerned about fairness/reciprocity (two way).. think 2 for you do something nice for me and I do it back (reciprocity)
Level 3 - share secrets & do things for eachother out of genuine care (intimate) .. think 3 for me you + secret
Level 4 - value emotional closeness, accept diff’s (mature).. think 4 is mature
58
what is CMV? & what is a common long term repercussion from it
CMV is caused by exposure to a type of herpes virus during prenatal development. A small proportion of infants with CMV develop long-term problems, with sensorineural hearing loss being most common.
59
Research has found that which of the following behaviors of noncustodial fathers has the least impact on the post-divorce outcomes of children?
Frequency of contact
60
Gottman found that which of the horsemen is the single best predictor for divorce
Contempt (statements that communicate superiority, disrespect or disgust)
61
Piaget attributed what two “accomplishments” to the ability to create mental representations?
Deferred imitation & make believe play, both emerge in final substage of sensorimotor @ 18months
62
Overregularization
When child misapplies rules for forming plurals & past tense ex) adds “Ed” to all verbs
63
Auditory localization
Reflex turn heads toward source of sound, this ability decreases between 2-4 months and then re-emerges by 12months and, becomes more deliberate and adult like (1 yr/ around the time talking happens)
64
When do babies start holophrasic & telegraphic speech
Holo- 12-15months
Tele- 18-24months
65
IQ score & genetics
Most similar IQs: most identical/close genetically (genetics play a bigger role)
Least similar IQ: environment seems to play a role here, as least is biological child and parent living apart = 0.22 vs adopted siblings living together 0.24
66
Brain growth to adult levels
Reached 75% of its adult size and weight by 24 months (2)
67
Adolescent growth spurt girls versus boys
Girls 10-11
Boys 12-13
68
Age of viability (earliest age a premature baby can survive out the womb)
22-26 weeks after conception
69
Vygotsky proposed that higher mental processes are mediated by what
Language, signs, symbols and concepts that are the product of human culture
70
Babbling
Initial babbling included sounds of all languages 3-6months & by 9months it narrows to own language
71
Bullying & victimization research and its link to parenting
authoritarian and permissive parenting are both associated with an increased risk for bullying and victimization
authoritarian parenting: more strongly related to bullying behavior permissive parenting: more strongly related to victimization.
72
Hall research on deaf & sign language benefit
research suggests that learning sign language: benefits the acquisition of spoken language.
73
Animism vs magical thinking
Animism- had to do with objects having feelings *think animism, animal has more control than person
Mag- when they think they can affect unrelated events/objects
74
Social referencing & visual cliff tie
Early sign of attachment and visual cliff is used to study social referencing and attachment in young kids
75
Sensorimotor substages (Piaget cognitive development)
Substage 1: Simple Reflexes (0-1 month)
· Example: Newborn baby sucking on a pacifier when it's placed in their mouth.
· Substage 2: First Habits and Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months)
· Example: An infant uses body to bring satisfaction. Ie. repeatedly brings their hands to their mouth for comfort.
· Substage 3: Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months)
· Example: use objects to bring pleasure. Ie. A baby shakes a rattle to hear the sound it makes.
· Substage 4: Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions (8-12 months)
· Example: A baby picks up a cushion to reach a toy behind it.
· Explanation: Coordination begins as the baby combines different behaviors to achieve a goal. Here, the baby combines picking up the cushion and reaching behind it to get the toy. (Object permanence here)
· Substage 5: Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months)
· Example: A toddler explores different ways to drop, throw, and bounce a ball.
· Explanation: The child actively experiments with the actions they can perform on objects, leading to discoveries of what happens when different actions are applied.
· Substage 6: Invention of New Means Through Mental Combination (18-24 months)
· Example: A toddler uses a small stool to reach a high shelf for a cookie.
· Explanation: In this final substage, the child demonstrates creativity and problem-solving. They use mental planning, like realizing the stool can help them reach a desired object.
76
Preoperational stage
2 to 7 years of age
Representational Thought: Children begin to think about things not immediately present, like the past and future. They can also engage in more sophisticated make-believe play.
Symbolic Play: Children use one object to represent another. For example, a cardboard box might become a race car in their imaginative play.
Egocentrism: Children at this stage often struggle to understand that others have different perspectives or experiences. They might assume everyone thinks and feels the same way they do.
Transductive Reasoning: Preoperational children might mistakenly believe that unrelated events happening at the same time are somehow connected.
Magical Thinking: Children often engage in magical thinking, believing that their thoughts alone can cause events to occur.
Animism: They may attribute lifelike qualities to inanimate objects, like thinking a teddy bear has feelings.
Centration: This is when children focus on just one aspect of an object or situation while neglecting other important aspects.
Irreversibility: Preoperational children struggle to grasp that actions or processes can be undone or reversed.
Conservation struggles: cannot conserve
77
Concrete operational stage
7 to 12 years of age.
Logical Operations: mental activities enabling them to think logically about real, concrete situations.
Classification: They can classify objects based on their physical characteristics, grouping similar items together.
Seriation: Children can arrange items in order according to length, quantity, or other quantitative dimensions.
Numerical Operations: can perform basic mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
Conservation: children understand that certain properties of objects remain the same despite changes in their appearance.
For conservation to occur, two key concepts are needed: decentration (the ability to focus on more than one aspect of an object or situation at the same time) and reversibility (the ability to understand that actions and processes can be reversed).
78
Conservation order
(#LLMWV)
starting with number conservation and followed by length, liquid quantity, mass, weight, and volume conservation.
79
Formal operations stage
12 +
Abstract Thinking: allows them to contemplate abstract principles like democracy and equality.
Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning: gain the ability to formulate and test alternative hypotheses to find solutions to problems.
Propositional Thought: ability to assess the logic of verbal statements (propositions) without relying on concrete examples. It enables individuals to analyze the structure and validity of statements.
Renewed Egocentrism: Adolescents entering this stage may experience renewed egocentrism.
Imaginary Audience: they believe they are continually the focus of others' attention and concern.
Personal Fable: beliefs that the individual is unique, cannot be understood by others, and is invulnerable to harm.
80
Horizontal decalage
Gradual development of skills within a single stage of cog development (I.e. concrete operations stage)
81
Marital status research (mortality & life satisfaction)
Women live longer: mortality= married women, never married women, married men, never married men.
life satisfaction (order): married couples, then cohabitating couples then divorced/separated. Men= married/cohabiting men higher satisfaction followed by married and divorced/separated women. Men are happier.
Complicated relationship with life satisfaction. Research= married and maintained marriage were happier BEFORE marriage than those who never married/got married but divorced later
82
Premarital cohabitation & divorce research: early studies-present day & age factor
Early studies: couples who lived together before had higher divorce rates
Early 2000s: found no correlation
Present day: cohabitation May decrease divorce but only in first year of marriage. Subsequent yrs risk is higher.
Age: younger age for marriage/age they moved in - increases divorce risk
83
Premarital sex, marital satisfaction & divorce research
Premarital sex with partners other than future spouse, predicts divorce. Higher premarital sex count linked to lower marital happiness. A single sex partner - higher marital happiness. Particularly for women. Unsure for men.
84
Transition to parenthood & relationship quality research
Most couples decrease in satisfaction & increase conflict after kids. Having kids early in marriage linked with most significant decline in relationship satisfaction. Support from family and friends buffers this bc it reduces stress. Also sharing parental responsibilities helps women’s relationship satisfaction.
Exception: adoptive parents. Smallest decrease in satisfaction, more stability in quality of relationship & lower marital/parental stress
85
Adoptive children research: parent characteristics, child risk factors, international vs domestic adoptees and why these poorer outcomes happen
Parents: more educated & + $
Kid risk factors: psych (ADHD, learning disabilities, speech impairments & dev. Delays), behavioural & academic issues
International vs domestic: both have higher rates of internalizing & externalizing problems when compared to non adoptees, and international had fewer than domestic & were less likely to access mental health services.
Why? Pre adoption experiences, trauma, malnutrition, neglect, birth complications
86
Helicopter parent research: parenting style, outcomes & impact in adulthood
Parenting style: similar to authoritarian parenting with high control level
Outcomes: high stress, anxiety, sense of entitlement and lower autonomy, self regulation, academic motivation & achievement
Impact: increased depression symptoms, substance use, and decreased competence in relationships. Linked to poor functioning in school, exec functions & relationships in 17-25 yrs old
Mediators of relationship: (perry) self-control and emotional regulation
87
Custodial Grandparent research
Positives: second chance at life, better relationships with with grandchildren, sense of purpose & opportunity to nurture family relationships
Negatives: stress (financial, family relationships), psych (depression, anxiety) & chronic health concerns
88
Walkers cycle of violence
Tension building, acute battering & loving contrition (honeymoon)
89
Johnson’s typology (intimate terrorism, common couple violence/situational, violent resistance, mutual violent)
Intimate terrorism: one sided, one partner controls using violence or fear. Follows walkers cycle. Most often in straight couples.
Common couple violence/situational couple violence: occasional fights get out of hand. Both partners might get physical but it’s not a pattern of control or dominance. Context matters. Most common type of IPV****
Violent resistance: occurs due to self defence against abusive partner. Most common in straight couples.
Mutual violent: both are controlling & violent. Lest common.
90
Child maltreatment & consequences research: most common types, risk factors, consequences, therapies
Most common: neglect, physical abuse, sexual abuse and psych maltreatment
Risk factors: younger age, girls, race (American Indians, Alaskan followed by African American), single parent or step/Cohab. Families
Consequences: adult obesity (depression can mediate this link for maltreatment), bad mental health outcomes
* duration, severity & closeness of abuser matters.
Therapies: PCIT (physical/emotional abuse for kids 2-12) & TF-CBT (3-18, good for various traumas)
91
Early maternal employment & child development research
Research: Doesn’t impact child’s development, no risk in more behavioural/academic problems when compared to stay at home mom kids
Effects vary by family factors: maternal income helps in single parent/low income, maternal employment has small negative effects on children with 2 parent middle income household & upper income.
92
Daycare research
High quality daycare may increase behavioural problems, but enhanced cognitive language and social skills.
Doesn’t impact attachment security. Quality of caregiving more important.
93
Cultural socialization research
Positive: better self concept, ethnic identity, higher academic achievement and motivation and fewer behavioural problems
94
Impact of SES/culture on attachment security
Low SES: more likely to be insecurely attached (why? Absent father, poor parenting quality, parental drug use rather than SES), dismissing/avoidant attachment overrepresented in low SES moms (especially teen moms)
Culture: all attachments are present across the globe, secure most common, attachment variations due to caregiving quality, differences: western- more likely insecure/ avoidant, collectivist- more likely anxious/insecure/resistant
95
Early separation from caregivers for elective surgery research
Elective surgery: best outcomes if hospitalized before 7 months to prevent: stranger anxiety, struggle to be soothed by nurses and disturbances when return home (sleep, crying, clingy)
* traumatic sep: begins after 6 months
96
Recognition of facial expressions of emotion: research study, categorization, preference shift & affective meaning
Study: studied using looking time paradigms and event related potential (ERP), infants can discriminate some facial expressions soon after birth (happy/sad), reliable discrimination occurs @ 5-7 months
Categorization of facial expressions: @7months
Preference shift: prior to 7months prefer happy expressions, after 7months prefer fearful. Fear bias attributed to unfamiliarity which decreases by 12months
Affective meaning: @10-18months grasp affective meaning of facial expressions (1 year olds expect happiness after receiving toy & sadness/anger post conflict)
97
Age related changes in emotions
Lifespan: negative emotions decrease from early 20s-mid 60s (less sad until retirement age), positive emotions remain stable or increase during this time. Post 60 have mixed results, some finding positive emotions increase and negative decrease when health is controlled.
Health status impact: emotions vary with health & age. Worse health - more negative emotions.
98
Age related changes in emotional memory: positivity effect & socioemotional selectivity theory (SST)
Positivity effect: OAs remember more positive information from the past than younger adults
SST: predicts effect when future is limited (OA/people with terminal illnesses) people are more likely to focus on developing emotional connections. While young people value new experiences while time is unlimited
99
Aggression types, lifespan changes, interventions & research
Types:
instrumental (proactive) = to fulfill need/desire like to get toy/attention,
hostile (reactive) aggression= driven by anger with aim to hurt someone, when provoked it’s reactive. Can take form of physical, verbal & relational.
Changes= physical instrumental seen @1 yr peaks at 2 (terrible twos), remains dominant until 4 yrs when verbal & relational hostile become more common.
Interventions: parent training (reduces anger & ext behaviours)
Research: intervention effectiveness best for severe initial symptoms & worst for low SES families poorer outcomes, regardless of symptom severity
100
Childhood play (non social & social play types) & segregation. Age related changes (USO-PAC)
Non social: unoccupied, solitary and onlooker
Social: parallel (side by side but don’t share/interact ie- each build own sandcastle in sandbox, least complex) associative (play & interact but don’t have shared goal ie- exchange toys, convo but don’t work together to build something) & cooperative (play and have common goal, most complex, ie- build tower together)
Segregation- tendency to prefer same sex playmates, begins @ 2-3yrs with girls being earlier, persists despite cross play encouragement from caregivers, intensifies in childhood all the way to adolescence
Age related changes: unoccupied & onlooker occur at all ages (UO), solitary & parallel (SP) decline with age, associative & cooperative increase (AC)
101
Social relationships in adulthood: emotion regulation in marriage research
Emotion regulation research: unhappy married OA couples less likely to initiate negative emotions (negative start up) in Convos. Possibly due to learned strategies to limit negative emotions
102
Successful aging models (rowe-3 component model & baltes selective optimization with compensation model)
3 component model- for successful aging. 1) reduce risk for illnesses & disability 2) maintain high cognitive & physical functioning 3) remain socially engaged/connected
Baltes SEC model- helpful for minimizing age related losses & max gains. 1) selection- set goals 2) optimization- enhance skills for goal achievement & 3) compensation- obtain assistance for goal achievement (think of SEC acronym in title)
103
Damon’s 3 stages of friendship (Handy, Mutual & Intimacy)
1) Handy playmate = focus on play and enjoyment, friendship based on shared activities. 4-7yrs. Think handy I have someone to do this with!
2) mutual trust & assistance= deeper trust & emotional connection, friends provide support/assistance. 8-10yr
3) intimacy & loyalty: 11+, greater depth & intimacy, long lasting bonds, loyalty
104
Thomas & chess temperament model (goodness of fit model)
Temp. viewed as behavioural style with 9 dimensions.
3 categories: 1) easy children (positive mood, adapt well, tolerate frustration well, have regular routines.) 2) slow to warm up (mildly negative, adapt slowly, low activity, have moderate routines) 3) difficult children (negative mood, frequent crying, adaptability way lower, high activity and irregular routines)
Goodness of fit: ideal match is match between temperament & social environment (parents)
105
Rothbart’s Temperament Model (Reactivity & self-regulation)
Think R for reactivity.
View temp as differences in reactivity & self regulation
Reactivity: responsiveness to positive & negative stimuli including latency, duration & intensity in responses.
Reactivity factors: 1) surgency/extraversion= high activity, intense pleasure seeking & low shyness
2) negative affectivity = mood instability, sadness, fearfulness & irritability
Self regulation: facilitate, maintain and regulate reactivity.
Factor for self regulation: effortful control= ability to inhibit responses
106
Kagan behavioural inhibition (BI)
BI= tendency to respond negatively (negative affect & withdrawal) to unfamiliar people/things
Research= higher continuity in BI in those with high BI, associated with high risk for anxiety (social anxiety), depression and poorer social functioning. Parents of kids with BI have higher rates of childhood anxiety that continue to adulthood.
107
Marcia’s ID development theory: ID types & examples (DFMI)
Diffusion= no crisis or commitment. Ex. HS student unsure of what to do in life and is open to various careers
Foreclosure= no crisis but have commitment thanks to parents/authority figures. Ex. Adult takes over family company without second guessing, bc they know it’s expected.
Memoratorium= have crisis but no commitment. Ex. Student questioning career path and exploring different majors but haven’t committed to any yet.
ID achievement: have crisis & commitment. Ex. After struggling with options, they decide on career
108
Gross motor development
1-3m: chin & chest up, roll to side
4-6m: sits, rolls front to back, arms out startle reflex
7-9m: sits steadily, pulls self up & creeps
10-12m: creeps, cruises more, first steps
13-15m: stand, walk, stoop, walk with you, creep stairs
16-18m: walk backward, stairs with one hand, run & throw while standing
19-30m: walk stairs up/down, kick & throw, able to jump bottom step
31-36m: arms swing, able to balance on one foot for 3scs, alternate skip steps on stairs, able to pedal & catch
4yrs: balance for 4-8secs, throw 10ft, catch bounced ball
5yrs: walk stairs with no rail, hop 15xs, balance for 8+, walk & jump backwards
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SIDS (risk factors & protective measures)
Risk: male, 2-4months, race (AA or Native American), premature birth, low BW, poor prenatal care, alcohol use during pregnancy, smoking while pregnant or post natally
Unsafe practices that increase risk: bed sharing, bumper, soft-loose bedding & baby sleep on stomach.
Protective measures: sleep on back, breastfeed, crib as bare as possible, avoid overheating, share a room (not bed) with baby, pacifier at nap times, bedtime without strap/string
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DST & motor skill development
DST: development is due to interaction of many factors
Motor skill development: motor skills develop in similar sequence but develop uniquely based on infant, environment and infant goals/desires
111
Scarr’s genotype-environment correlations
1 passive- genetic, parents pass on and have similar traits so they expose kids to same activities
2 evocative- child has genes that evoke responses from others
3 active/niche picking- actively choose/seek experiences that align with genetics
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Reaction range & examples. Canalization
Reaction range: how genetics influence responses to environmental factors
Example:
Narrow range: child with severe intellectual disability, limited positive outcomes even in enriched environments
Broad range: child born with mild intellectual disability, may achieve positive outcomes in enriched environments
Canalization: tendency for genetics to constrain outcomes regardless of environment
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Epigenetics
Gene expression modification not change in gene code (DNA). Due to DNA methylation, add methyl group. Or: diet, trauma, pollutants, can be inherited from multiple generations
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Kohlberg moral development
1 preconventional= punishment/obedience (will behaviour lead to punishment) and instrumental hedonism (will it lead to rewards or satisfy person’s needs). Focus is on self for both.
2 conventional= good boy/girl (is it socially approved/will they be more liked by others?) law & order(does it violate laws or rules established by authorities).
3 post conventional= morality of contract (is it consistent with democratically chosen laws), morality of principles (is it consistent with universal principles like Justice or fairness)
* moral development: due to cog development & perspective taking, occurs in fixed sequence and predictability
* limitation: underestimates like Piaget the role of parents in moral development. By emphasizing peers.
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Fathers role in kids life post divorce: research
Time spent with kids not important, helpful for dads to provide $, emotional closeness & being a caring parent is important (emotional & academic success)
116
Personality traits changes in adulthood and gender: research
Neuroticism: indicator of maladjustment. Decreases as you get older.
Extraversion & openness: stay the same or decrease slightly as you age
Concienciousness & agreeableness: increase as you age
Genders: women tend to score higher on agreeableness and on being emotional, men tend to score higher on assertiveness & openness
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Theory of mind (TOM)
Emerge 3-5yrs. Understand and predict others behaviours based on beliefs & desires.
Study: children under 4 predicted wrong location bc they couldn’t distinguish others beliefs. Most 4-5yr olds got it right and showed understanding of false beliefs
118
Eyewitness testimony
Challenges: can be inaccurate due to misinformation effect (distort mem with misleading info)
Age & accuracy: tends to improve with age. Young kids less accurate. Linked to age related changes in suggestability. That said, children as young as 3 can provide accurate testimonies when interviewed carefully & not exposed to misinformation
Reverse trend: sometimes younger can be more accurate due to different levels of knowledge . More knowledge = more false memories
119
Effects of increasing age & memory: research
Decline: OA- greatest decline recent long term (secondary) memory followed by working memory in short term. Reasons for decline: stop using effective memory strategies. Episodic memory (autobiographical) also declines in adulthood. Explicit memory (mem requiring concious effort for recall) also shows decline with increasing age.
Least affected: short term memory (primary mem) & remote long term (tertiary). Semantic (facts) mem shows little to no declines.
Mixed research for Nondeclarative memory: some say it’s stable others say it declines, but decline is less than episodic memory.
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Sex differences in cog abilities, personality, developmental vulnerability
Boys: better at mathematical reasoning/problem solving, verbal analogies, mental rotation tasks, show more physical aggression and have higher self esteem across lifespan (unless they develop late). Also more vulnerable to perinatal hazards & developmental issues (ADHD, ASD, speech defects).
Girls: do better in computation, speech fluency, mixed results in relational aggression. Lower self esteem
Parents & teachers gender stereotyping affects this.
121
Marriage & health: research study
Marriage improves health, effects somewhat greater for men. Why? Wives take on more responsibility sometimes to care for husbands health
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Self stereotyping & memory
Internalized aging stereotypes affect memory. OA with older ID performed worse when told he would be compared with other OA. OA with younger ID performed similarly.
In other words… an older (vs younger) id DID MORE POORLY on a memory task when they were told their performance would be compared to that of other OAs (vs YA)
123
Cultural socialization & preparation for bias
Cultural socialization: teaches history traditions and promotes pride. Leads to good outcomes- including positive racial/ethnic ID
Prep bias: aims to make children aware of discrimination and parent teaches affective coping strategies. Mixed results.
124
Chromosomal deletion disorders (prader, angelman & cri)
Prader willi: deletion on paternal 15. Hyperphasia, hypotonia, self injury.
Angelman: deletion on maternal 15. unnaturally happy.
CRI du chat: deletion on chromosome 5. cat like high pitched cry, wide set eyes, low set ears.
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Sex chromosomal disorders (Klinefender, turner, Rhett)
Klinefelter: 2+ X. Gynecomastia, incomplete secondary sex characteristics, long legs/arms, taller than normal.
Turner: missing part/all of x is missing. infertile, webbed like neck.
Rhett: x-linked dominant d’, caused by mutation in MECP2 gene. Infants appear normal during 6-18 months but then have language problems, slowed brain/head growth, loss of speech/motor skills
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Down syndrome types
Trisonomy: 95% of cases. Extra 21 chromosome on all cells of body. (47 vs usual 46). Due to cell division error and high maternal age.
Mosaic: 1% of cases. Only some cells have extra 21. Due to cell division error and high maternal age.
Translocation: ~4% of cases. 46 chromosomes in all cells, but some have an extra chromosome 21 attached (translocated) most often chromosome 14. Not caused by high maternal age. Due to cell division error or is inherited from parent carrier. If parent has 1 kid with translocation, high risk next one will have it too.
Symptoms: poor muscle tone, high risk of Alzheimer’s, intellectual disability (range), short stocky build, heart defects, vision/hearing problems, almond shaped eyes.
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Huntington & PKU risk if parents have it
Huntington: autosomal dominant. 50% risk for child if one parent has it. 75% if both.
PKU: autosomal recessive. Have to have 2 to get it. So if one parent has it. Kid has 25% chance of getting it
128
Teratogens (when is it worst?)
Worst from 3rd-8th week post conception
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FASD 4 disorders (FAS vs. pFAS vs. ARND vs. ARBD)
FAS: most severe. Physiological anomalies in face & body (small eye opening, thin lip, retarded physical growth), CNS dysfunction (intellectual disability, low processing speed, hyperactivity), problems with heart, kidney, liver, vision and hearing problems.
PFAS: same CNS dysfunction but facial anomalies are present/less severe and retarded growth may not be present.
ARND (neurodevelopment): CNS dysfunction without facial anomalies/other physical defects.
ARBD (birth defects): heart, kidney, vision defects present without other symptoms.
130
Exposure to alcohol is worse when?
2nd half of 1st trimester
embryonic stage. Why? Because of organ development.
131
Self awareness in babies
Babies cry more to recording of own voice @ birth. By 18 months they pass the rouge test.
132
Kohlberg cognitive developmental theory (gender; identity, stability and constancy)
1) gender ID: M or F 2) gender stability— ID remains overtime boys>M, girls>W 3) gender constancy.. remains stable across circumstances, situations regardless of changes in appearance or behaviour (thought gender typed behaviours happen here.. but research finds they happen earlier too)
133
Bem’s gender schema (gender schematic vs aschematic) theory vs Egan & Perry’s Multidimensional Model (KT- CFI)
Bem: suggests children create schemas used to organize, interpret, perceive, encode gender typed experiences about themselves and others. By age 3, kids have established gender schemas (seen in toy preference). Bem ID’d gender schematic vs aschematic individuals= gender schematic rely more on gender norms than gender aschematic. Exposure to gender norms/reinforcement in childhood determine whether one is gender schematic or aschematic.
Perry: focuses on components of gender ID:
1) membership knowledge (knowing own gender)
2) gender typicality (perceiving one’s characteristics as similar to others of same gender
3) gender connectedness (satisfaction with one’s gender)
4) felt pressure (pressure from oneself/others to conform to gender norms)
5) inter group bias (belief that one’s gender is superior to other gender).
Research shows these are tied to adjustment. High scores on gender typicality & connectedness linked to high self esteem & peer acceptance. High score on felt pressure = stress
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Monocular & Binocular Cues
Binocular: retinal disparity, convergence
Monocular: size, gradient, light, motion parallax
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First, second and third trimester
1st: 1-13 weeks
2nd: 14-27 weeks
3rd: 28-birth
*remember premie is before 37 weeks and full term is 37+
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Teratogenic impact on periods of pregnancy: germinal period, embryonic period and fetal period
Germinal: conception-2nd week when the zygote (fertilized egg) implants on the uterine wall. Exposure to teratogens/toxins has an “all or nothing effect”. Implantation might not occur. If it occurs then it had no effect.
Embryonic: 3rd-8th week. Organs and structures are forming here, so exposure to teratogens/toxins>> major defects
Fetal: 9 week to birth. Exposure to toxins>> minor defects. Exception: CNS which is susceptible to major damage in embryonic and fetal stage.
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Rates of depression: gender and age
Among children same rate** for females/males but by late adolescence rates are 2x for women vs men. (Due to puberty)
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Research on relationship between behavioural inhibition (Kagan) and psychopathology
Behavioural inhibition has been found to be associated with anxiety and depression with anxiety-> depression
139
Experiencing which self-concious emotions elicits greatest motivation to change self?
Shame
140
Work-family conflict (men/women)
M & w experience similar levels of work family conflict
141
Difference between family based treatment for bulimia vs anorexia
Greater collaboration between parents and effected teen in bulimia (due to insight). BN= bulimia
In anorexia (family-based treatment) consists of 3 phases: take an agnostic approach to ethology of disorder (doesn’t try to ID why it happens or blame kid/parents)
142
Outcomes of children living with divorced single mothers vs children living in 2 parent families
Divorced single family kids: have more behavioural and academic problems but that this difference dissipates when income level is controlled
143
How does brain compensate after neuronal loss after 60 (synaptic pruning/loss in B.W. & volume) & where in the brain is the greatest decline seen?
Compensates via neurogenesis in hippocampus, new connections in remaining neurons
Brain: PFC & parietal lobe
144
Teen substance use/abuse: risk factors and protective factors
Protective: faith, parental disapproval of subs use, age appropriate parental monitoring of social behaviour, academic success, involvement in extracurriculars, positive peer influences and good self control
Risk factors: parental drug/substance use, mental health (untreated ADHD, depression), exposure to stressful life events, weak p-child relationship, peers who consume/have deviant behaviours, favourable attitudes towards drugs/substances, poor social skills and school failures.
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What buffers relationship to stressful events that leads to substance abuse?
Faith, self control and parental support
146
Research on brain development and teen drug use
Limbic system develops earlier than PFC leading to more emotional decisions and higher risk of substance use.
Other research: drug/alcohol use in early teens increases risk of developing substance use disorder when compared to individuals who begin consumption in late teens or early adulthood
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Teen sleep deprivation
Caused by perfect storm: 1) bio factors= delayed sleep onset follows puberty as result to melatonin changes. 2) societal= earlier school times. 3) Psychosocial= greater autonomy over bed times, higher academic pressures, more screen time in evening
Research offers most support for increased screen time and earlier school start
148
Sexual orientation
Research: genetic link (ID twins more likely to have same orientation vs fraternal twins). Higher likelihood the more older brothers a boy has.
Explanation for fraternal birth order effect= maternal immune hypothesis —> progressive immunization occurs in mothers to make specific antigens which impacts sexual differentiation in brain. This research is challenged due to methodological flaws.
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Sexual fluidity
Not same as bisexuality. Because sexual fluidity changes depending on situation and is transient. Bisexuality is fixed/persistent/static.
Research= sexual fluidity seen in both men and women. But it’s more common in women
150
Predictors of early onset puberty in girls & research on late puberty onset for girls
Maternal mood disorder, absence of biological dad, presence of stepdad/mom bf, bad family relationships
Late onset= mixed research
151
Pragmatics vs paralanguage
Pragmatics= focus on use of language in different social contexts (turn taking, different language with child/boss)
Paralanguage= focus on non verbals. Parasody (stress, rhythm, tone, intonation), non linguistic sounds/words (huh, umm, laughing, sighing) and kinesics (body language in communication).
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Critical period for acquisition of language
Timing/content of language @ birth
Syntax, grammar, phonetics in 1st year of life
Semantics/vocabulary size not affected by age**
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Baby crying (hunger, anger and pain)
Hunger/discomfort: low pitch rhythmic cry
Anger/frustration: shrill less regular cry
Pain: loud, high pitch followed by silence.
Best way to respond: mixed. To reconcile differences experts suggest optimal response depends on severity of infant cries (quick>distress, slow>minor upset)
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Gay parents have better what when compared to straight parents?
Parenting skills
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Contributors to child’s moral development
Parents induction style of discipline= + advanced moral reasoning levels. Why? Bc induction style involves explaining why a behaviour is wrong and provides an emphasis on how it affects other people.
Piaget/kohlberg concluded that peers influence kids more than parents. But some researchers disagree.
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Piaget’s Moral Development Stages
1. Premoral: limited understanding of rules/morality
2. Heterogeneous: rules set by authorities, unchangeable, focus on consequences of behaviour
3. Autonomous: results from agreements, changeable, emphasis on actors intentions
Limitations: underestimates child’s cognitive abilities and moral understanding, erroneously suggests moral development ends at 11
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Family focused therapy is for what
bipolar disorder
158
Down syndrome & higher risk for Alzheimer’s why?
People with disorder have extra gene for the amyloid precursor protein (APP) gene. Bc of this amyloid begins to accumulate in the brains of teens and early 20s and increases their risk for Alzheimer’s
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Same sex playmates (ages of incidence and who gets it first)
Most begin between ages 2-3 with girls showing preference at 2 and boys at 3
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Midlife crisis research
Recent longitudinal studies show that life satisfaction appears to be stable through midlife. Therefore not supporting the idea of a “midlife crisis”
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Flynn effect vs confluence model vs Seattle longitudinal study
Flynn: observed rise in intelligence overtime in standardized intelligence test scores
Confluence model: studies found a relationship between family size, birth order and IQ scores decreasing from 1st born to last child. First borns advantage—> don’t share parents attention are exposed to more adult language and are more likely to act as tutors for younger siblings
Seattle longitudinal study: younger people are better educated than OAs and are more likely to have had experiences (better nutrition, health care) that increase scores on intelligence tests
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Sibling relationship changes
Middle childhood = conflict + closeness
end of middle childhood/adolescence) = less conflict + egalitarian
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