1
Q
sensory memory
A
- information is stored as a visual or auditory image
- visual images (iconic memory) lasts 0.5 seconds
- auditory images (echoic memory) lasts up to 4 seconds
- selective attentions allows certain information to pass into short-term memory
2
Q
short-term memory
A
- processes ongoing information
- stores memories for a short duration (up to 30 seconds)
- capacity = 7 items, +/- 2
- divided into primary memory and working memory
3
Q
primary memory
A
- the “holding tank” for small amounts of information that requires no manipulation
(example - repeating 5 digits in a row)
4
Q
working memory
A
- the “holding tank” for information that needs to be manipulated
(example - repeating 5 digits in reverse order)
5
Q
rehearsal
A
- deliberate repetition (usually acoustic) of information that enhances our short-term memory for it, or enhances its transfer to long-term memory
6
Q
chunking
A
- transforming separate items into meaningful units in order to remember it better
7
Q
recent memory
(secondary, intermediate)
A
- lasts around 2 weeks
8
Q
remote memory
(tertiary, long-term)
A
- lasts 2 years or more
9
Q
Zeigarnik effect
A
- when a person is trying to solve a problem involving recall and they come to an impasse, the brain will continue to work unconsciously until a solution is obtained
10
Q
redintegration
A
- when some sort of stimuli rapidly unlocks a chain of memories
(example - a smell from childhood)
11
Q
declarative memory is divided into…
A
- semantic memory + episodic memory
12
Q
semantic memory
A
memories for facts, concepts, and other kinds of knowledge
13
Q
episodic memory
(autobiographical)
A
memories for personally experienced events
14
Q
retrospective memory
A
memories for events that occurred in the past
15
Q
prospective memory
A
memories for events that will occur in the future
(example - remembering a dentist appointment)
16
Q
explicit memory
A
memories that require conscious effort to retrieve
17
Q
implicit memory
A
consists of memories that are recalled without conscious effort
18
Q
long-term potentiation
A
- the physiological process by which short-term memories become long-term memories
- repeated stimulation of a synapse leads to chemical and structural changes in the dendrite of a receiving neuron
- involves enzymes called kinases
19
Q
retroactive amnesia
A
- the loss of memories for events that occurred before and injury or disease
20
Q
anterograde amnesia
A
- impairment in forming new memories following an injury or disease
21
Q
retroactive interference
A
- when recently learned information interferes with the ability to recall material learned in the past
22
Q
proactive interference
A
- when previously learned information interferes with the ability to learn or recall current material
23
Q
method of loci
A
- forming a visual image of item’s on one’s list and putting each in a specific place as one mentally walks through a room
24
Q
the peg-word system
A
- memorizing a set of ten visual images that can be pegs on which to hang ideas
25
word associations
- forming a word or sentence with the first letter of the items being memorized, or making up stories that connect the items together
26
the substitute word technique
- breaking down a word to be remembered into it's parts, then substituting words that are more familiar and can be visualized
(example - catabolize = cat, a ball, eyes)
27
Illusory memory
False memory
Techniques for false memory study: DRM, false memory induction and imagination inflation.
*DRM procedure= research has found that it often creates false/illusory memory of words. DRM is a false memory task= provides list of words that are semantically related and then asked to recall as many as they can. Research shows this can create a false memory for words. Saying you remember anger for example when words presented were mad, rage, fear
*false memory induction= tell person that family told researcher that the subject experienced a particular event in childhood (got lost at a mall). However family irl confirmed event never happened. When subjects were asked about it many said they did experience the event.
*imagination inflation= researcher induced a memory by having subject repeatedly imagine an event the researcher knows didn’t occur. In research confidence in false memory increases the more times you imagine the event.
28
Testing effect and mediator effectiveness hypothesis
Testing effect: when practicing recalling information from memory during learning helps you remember it better. Like using flashcards or taking practice exams.
Mediator effectiveness hypothesis: the idea that practicing recalling information (testing effect) creates helpful memory cues (mediators) that make it easier to remember information later. So, testing helps you remember by providing these memory cues
29
Baddeley’s model of Working memory: central executive & 3 subsystems
central executive (controls the three subsystems by directing attention to relevant information and coordinating other cognitive processes)
three subsystems:
– phonological loop: responsible for the temporary storage of verbal information
- visuo-spatial sketchpad: responsible for the temporary storage of visual and spatial information
- episodic buffer: integrates verbal, visual, and spatial information (prev 2) and links working memory to long-term memory.
30
Serial position effect & Three-Store Model
- Three-store model explains serial position effect. (Sensory+short+longterm)
- Serial position effect involves memorizing and recalling words.
- Immediate recall shows primacy and recency effects.
- Primacy effect for long-term memory, recency for short-term.
- Delayed recall results in only primacy effect.
31
Providing training to adults on a demanding working memory task is likely to improve what kind of memory (fluid/crystallized)?
Fluid. Even when working memory task is not similar in format to the fluid intelligence task.
32
Priming
is a method for studying Implicit memory.
Several types: perceptual/conceptual, affective/evaluative, masked priming, semantic priming, associative priming and
- repetition priming: most common in research. occurs when the presentation of a word or object facilitates later ID of that word/object in a different format/context
- two types of repetition priming: word stem completion and word fragment completion
Research finds: implicit memory and priming abilities intact in amnesia patients and perform same as non amnesia patients on word stem completion, word frag and other priming tasks
33
Acrostic vs acronym vs anagram vs keyword method
Acrostic: Sentence or rhyme that is formed using words that begin with the first letter of words to be memorized (see Piaget creep forward is acrostic for sensorimotor preoperational concrete and formal stages)
Acronym: a word or pronounceable sequence of letters is created from the first letter of words to be memorized
Anagram: a word or phrase constructed from another word by rearranging the letters of that word
Keyword: image that is created from the images of two or more words
34
Multi store model of memory 3 levels
1) Sensory memory
2) when we pay attention to sensory it transfers to Short term memory= memory span: storage Capacity is 7+/-2 unless there’s chunking. Working memory: process and manipulate information on short term memory. (Allow you to solve simple math problems in imagination)
3) information transfer from short term to Long term memory= believed to be unlimited capacity and divided into recent (secondary; minutes to yrs) and remote (tertiary; yrs to decades)
35
Long term memory:
Implicit (no conscious effort): procedural—>non declarative (think classical conditioning and priming)
Explicit(conscious effort): declarative —> a) semantic (facts, knowledge) b) episodic (autobiographical)
Also can be retrospective (memories on past) or prospective (memories on futures
36
Long term memory most affected by increasing age (recent long term or remote long term?)
Recent long term
37
Theories on forgetting (trace & interference)
Trace: memories create physical changes in brain that deteriorate overtime when they’re not rehearsed/recalled. Not we’ll supported by research.
Interference: well supported by research. Proactive interference (new info harder to recall bc of previous info). Retroactive interference (can’t recall old info due to new information)
38
Techniques for improving memory
1) elaborate rehearsal= relate to something you know/generate meaningful examples via semantic encoding (best way to transfer/retrieve from long term memory)
2) verbal mnemonics= acronyms (1st letter of each word) and acrostics (phrase or sentence from familiar words with each letter from the 1st lever of one of the words to be memorized)
3) visual imagery mnemonics= keyword method (paired associate learning), method of loci
4) encoding specificity= learn in room/replicate as close to conditions as room of recall (works due to retrieval cues). Context dependent learning and state dependent learning (psych/physio state)
5) practice testing= practice with flashcards and practice tests. Distributed practice best.
39
Tolman
Latent learning= occurs without reinforcement or being demonstrated in observable behaviours.
studied rats in mazes. Study= rats that are only reinforced at the end of maze on 10th day. Had formed cognitive maps in the first 10 days without reinforcement which allowed them to function similarly to rats that were reinforced everyday. Tolman attributed map formation= latent learning.
40
Kohler
Insight learning= AHA moment. influenced by gestalt and based on chimpanzee research.
Study= chimp sultan thought about the problem, paced and back forth and suddenly had insight into the solution of problem aka had AHA moment.
41
Bandura
Social cognitive theory.
Research= kids showed aggression when observed aggressive live model, filmed model or a filmed cartooned. ***Boys and girls were more likely to imitate model of same gender. Boys acted more aggressive than girls towards doll. Providing children with reward for acting aggressive REDUCED gender differences in aggression.***
Observational learning depends on 4 meditational processes:
1) attention: learner must notice+pay attention
2) learner must store information into memory
3) learner must be capable of imitating behaviour
4) learner must be motivated to perform behaviour (reinforcement increases behaviour. Can be self reinforcement, external reinforcement (given to learner) or vicarious reinforcement (given to the model))
42
When is bandura’s social cognitive theory modeling most effective?
When it uses guided participation (participant modeling) = client observed model gradually approach the feared stimulus in steps and has client perform each step with assistance from model.
* models that are apprehensive about approaching feared stimulus but gradually overcome their fear are more effective than mastery models!
Psych Prep Key Terms
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