1
Q
broad issues in developmental psych
A
- nature vs nurture
- genetic inheritance(nature) vs environmental factors(nurture)
- Chomsky(nativist) vs Pavlov/Skinner(behaviourist) - continuity vs discontinuity
- does development happen gradually or in distinct stages?
- Piaget (stage theory) vs Atchley (over life course) - nomothetic vs ideographic
- studying groups(broader) vs individuals - stability vs change
- whether traits remain stable or change over time - sensitive vs critical period
concept of windows in development where certain skills or traits are most easily required. - typical vs atypical
- categories vs continuum
2
Q
research methods used in developmental psych
watching
A
- watching:
structured observation: children completing specific tasks under a controlled environment, allowing for detailed behaviour observation
- limitations -> child feels uncomfortable being watched/ structured setting
naturalistic observation: observing children in their natural environment(school, playground) to see how they behave in unstructured settings.
- limitations -> less control over variables, children unaware their being watched, ethics?
3
Q
research methods used in developmental psych
asking
A
= interviews/ questionnairres to extract information directly from individual
- flexible interview = allows targeted questions and lots of info to be gathered but may struggle with honesty or comparison
- structured interviews = provides standardised questions allowing for comparison but lacks depth.
- parent/teacher questionairres = Effective for gathering information from caregivers/multiple perspectives, but may be limited in depth.
- child questionairre = suitable for older children who can express their feelings directly
4
Q
research methods used in developmental psych
testing
A
- psychophysiological testing
- measures brain activity or physiological responses.
- This is focused and provides proximal data but requires consent and can be in intimidating environment (ECG caps) - standardised/ empirical testing
- Common for measuring development but may be limited by biases or discrimination.
- Everybody gets same task with same level of instructions and guidance and see how they perform
5
Q
research methods used in developmental psych
analysing
A
- ethnography
-large case study involving study of cultural contexts, however non-generalizable to other individuals or settings - database/ archival
- Provides comparisons over time, cheaper, but data quality may be questionable. - case study
- multi-dimensional, but potentially biased, non-generalizable
6
Q
general research designs
A
- correlational design
- explores relationship between variables but can not determine causality
Laboratory Experiments: Controlled settings allow for manipulation of variables, providing strong evidence for causality.
Field Experiments: Conducted in natural settings, they offer better ecological validity but less control.
Natural/Quasi Experiments: Study of naturally occurring events, though they may have limited control.
Longitudinal Studies: Track the same group of people over a long period. These studies can show how development changes over time but may be outdated or have sample effects.
Cross-Sectional Studies: Study different age groups at one timepoint. They can reveal generational differences but may suffer from cohort effects (i.e., differences between groups due to experiences).
Sequential Designs: A combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal methods, allowing for more dynamic insights into developmental changes.
7
Q
validity in developmental research
A
- internal validity = the extent to which the study accurately measures the relationship between variables(cause and effect)
- external validity = the ability to generalize findings to the wider population from the sample
- ecological validity = generalise findings to real-world setting
- population validity = The extent to which results can be generalized to a larger group from your sample.
8
Q
ethical issues in developmental psych
A
- deception = parents or child must be fully informed about the study
- vulnerable groups
- Consent/Assent: Obtaining informed consent from parents and assent from children where necessary.
- Right to Withdraw: Participants should always have the option to leave the study at any time.
- Necessity of Child Participation: Researchers must justify the inclusion of child participants to ensure it is essential for the study.
9
Q
what is cognitive development?
A
= refers to thinking, learning, remembering, and problem solving that evolves over time.
Key areas of focus include conceptual reasoning, abstraction, language, socio-emotional development, perception, and information processing.
The goal is to understand qualitative differences in how adults and children think, recognizing that children think differently from adults.
10
Q
Piagets theory of cognitive development
A
= Children construct their own understanding of the world, rather than passively absorbing information.
- development follows a fixed order of stages, cannot be skipped and the speed of progression may vary between children but they remain universal. (experienced by all children)
11
Q
4 stages of cognitive development
Piagets theory
A
- sensorimotor stage
- birth to two years
- Develops object permanence (understanding objects exist even when unseen).
- Begins understanding cause and effect through deliberate actions.
- Exhibits deferred imitation (performing actions observed earlier). - preoperational stage
- age 2-7
- Advances in pretend play and symbolic representations.
- Displays egocentrism (difficulty understanding others’ perspectives) and animism (attributing life-like characteristics to objects).
- Language development continues. - concrete operational stage
- age 7-11
- Development of logical thinking and the principle of conservation (understanding that quantities remain the same despite changes in form).
- Inductive logic (specific -> general reasoning). - formal operational stage
- 12+
- Shift from logical to abstract reasoning.
- Develops deductive reasoning (general to specific).
- Engages in moral, philosophical, and political thinking.
12
Q
mechanisms of change
piagets theory
A
schemas = mental representations that organize categories of information and experiences
adaptation = building schemas via interaction with the environment
assimilation = integrating new info into exisiting schemas (assuming all animals that “baa” are sheep)
accommodation = creating or adjusting prior schemas based on new experiences (recognizing that not all animals that “baa” are sheep).
13
Q
critisism of Piagets theory
A
- selective sampling bias
- lack of rigour
- underestimation of children
- The theory overemphasizes the role of the child in development and neglects the social environment.
- No consideration of post-adolescent development.
- Deficit-based: Focuses more on what children can’t do rather than what they can do.
- descriptions rather than explanations
14
Q
Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive devlopment
A
- emphasises that learning leads to development rather than the reverse (Piaget)
- role of culture in shaping development
- emphasis on social environment (interactions/ guided learning)
- role of language (internalisation)
- More Knowledgeable Other (MKO): Adults, rather than peers, provide important guidance.
- carers providing modelling and scaffolding
15
Q
Vygotsky’s mechanisms of change
A
Elementary mental functions: Innate functions like attention, sensation, perception, and memory.
Through cultural interaction, these elementary functions evolve into higher mental functions (problem-solving, abstract thinking), which are influenced by cultural beliefs and values.
16
Q
information processing perspective
A
- views development as a process of maturation
-Thought processes are similar at all ages but vary according to acquired knowledge and experience.
17
Q
informtion processing theory of development
A
= development is a process of gradual maturation.
- Information is dealt with in stages, focusing on encoding, storage, and retrieval, with these processes being present across all ages but more efficient as the individual matures. (not discrete like Piaget)
- Emphasizes how internal cognitive processes (memory, attention, problem-solving) interact with external stimuli.
- IPT emphasizes internal cognitive processes, offering a more continuous and fluid model of development.
- specifies precise mechanisms
- apllicable and actionable
- little extrapolation to social/moral domains
- limited integration of biologicsl substrates
18
Q
Cases Neo Piagetian theory
A
= Case’s theory agrees with Piaget’s concept of step-like stages, where each step represents more sophisticated cognitive abilities.
- Executive Functioning (EF) is central to explaining how/why cognitive abilities evolve using IPT. It allows for problem-solving, monitoring, and adapting strategies.
- Recognizes that children develop different abilities at varying paces
19
Q
the 4 stages of cognitive structures (Cases neo piagetian theory)
A
- sensimotor structures = sensory input and physical actions
- interrelational structures = internal representations of objects and concepts (words, images)
- dimensional structures = simple transformations (fractions)
- vectorial structures = complex transformation sof thinking (abstract thinking)
20
Q
executive functions and their role in cognitive development
A
= mental processes that help individuals set, monitor and achieve goals.
- higher and lower cognitive processes that control our behaviour
- includes the working memory, inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility.
- EF enable individuals to plan, make decisions, control impulses and focus attention.
- EF are regulated by prefrontal areas
- Miyake and Friedman are key theorists
21
Q
the development of executive functions
A
- early childhood (3-5 years)
- Inhibition and working memory are the first to develop, with significant growth in the ability to listen, resist urges, and follow instructions. - pre-adolescence
- Working memory and goal-directed behaviour improve. Skills like planning and selective attention emerge (e.g., managing school tasks). - adolescence
- Peak period of integration of EF components, improving problem-solving and strategy development. - adulthood
- Some EF abilities, particularly working memory and spatial functions, begin to decline.
22
Q
influence of social interaction on executive functions
A
Socialisation: The way caregivers and parents interact with children can influence the development of EF. For instance, positive caregiving (e.g., playing, managing impulses) fosters EF, while negative control (e.g., over-restricting decisions) can impair it.
Children with better EF are often better at regulating their behaviour in social settings, leading to better social interactions.
23
Q
measuring executive function
A
- standardised neuropsychological tests
- behavioural checklists
- observations/ interviews
There are some issues with floor effects in assessments, where younger children may not perform tasks well enough to capture their true abilities. (minimum scores)
24
Q
inhibitory control
A
= is a core executive function
- It involves controlling our automatic urges (attention, behaviour, thoughts, and emotions) by pausing, then using attention and reasoning to respond appropriately. Inhibitory control involves our ability to think before we react
25
mechanisms of change in the stages of cases neo piagetian theory
- brain maturation = improvements in the efficacy of thought
- working memory = can engage in more complex mental operations
- schemas become more automatic with use
- each stage is represented by central conceptual structures = mental frameworks used to organize information (numerical, social, spatial)
horizontal decalage = It is a lag in time in being able to understand different tasks can require the same cognitive framework.
26
piagets theory of moral development
1. heteronomous morality (moral realism)
- ages 4-7
- morality is governed from external sources
- rules from authority figures must be strictly followed (immanent justice)
- focus on consequences, not intention
2. autonomous morality (mortal relativism)
- age 8-12ish
-morality becomes self governed
- Rules can be adapted; fairness involves considering others’ needs.
- Recognizes that harm can be accidental.
27
Kohlberg's stages of moral development
- emphasis on moral judgement competence (reasoned decisions about what is right and wrong when there are conflicting values to consider)
1. pre-conventional stage
- infancy
- pre-school
- obedience to avoid punishment 1
-concerned with self interest 2
2. conventional
- conformity and social 3
- school-age
- social relationships and approval
- law and order 4
3. post-conventional
- adolescence/adulthood
- social contract (fairness) 5
- universal principles (the right thing to do ethically) 6
critiques and challenges:
- Stages may not be invariant(never chnaging) or universal; reasoning often situational.
- Cultural bias prioritizing justice over care.
- Weak evidence for structural consistency across stages.
28
social cognitive domain theory (Elliot Turiel)
- moral reasoning is part of a broader social reasoning system
3 domains:
1. moral domain = hitting, stealing, lying
2. social conventional domain = societal norms (rules/etiquette)
3. personal domain = personal choices
Distinct development begins at age 3-4, shaped by personal experiences and context.
29
key concepts in moral development
morality = Principles guiding right/wrong, including fairness, honesty, and justice.
moral judgement competence = Ability to reason about conflicting values/interests.
moral judgements = person justifying certain courses of action
moral atmosphere = Shared norms, values, and meanings in social contexts influence moral reasoning.
Educational and social environments affect judgment and behavior.
30
measuring moral development
1. Scenario-based methods: Interviews, hypothetical dilemmas (to measure moral judgement competence)
2. Objective tools: Multiple-choice questions(rank importance), moral atmosphere questionnaires.
3. Behavioral observations: Real-life behaviors in social contexts. (moral behvaiour)
challenges:
- intelligience/ verbal ability confounds
- ecological validity across age groups
31
32
gender differences and cultural influences in moral development
gender differences:
- men often align with justice rights/reasoning
- women prioritize welfare/care
culture influences:
- Western Cultures: Harmful actions deemed immoral.
- Chinese Cultures: Socially disruptive actions considered immoral.
- Similarities: Emphasis on honesty.
- Differences: Individual rights (Western) vs communal duties (Eastern).
33
what is language and pragmetics?
= a system of communication using symbols (sounds, gestures and words) to convey meaning.
- Requires knowledge of vocabulary, grammar (rules of sentence structure), and syntax (how words are arranged into meaningful sentences).
- Essential for the exchange of knowledge, transmission of culture, and sharing experiences.
Pragmatics:
Focus on how language is used in the real world and how meaning is shaped by factors like speech context, speaker intentions, listener interpretations, and social norms.
34
key milestones in language development
before birth:
new borns can prefer listening to stories their mothers have read to them during pregnancy
pre-linguistics:
Cooing (ooo, ahh) → Babbling (ba-ba-ba) → More complex babbling (mirroring speech) → First words.
Learning sounds, rhythms, and patterns of language from caregivers.
10 months onward:
- Use of gestures like pointing, shaking head/nodding, raising arms to be picked up, and showing objects.
- Sharing attention, expressing desires, and engaging in early social interactions.
- Predicts later language development and problem-solving abilities.
two word stage (18-20 months):
- Simple sentences emerge, e.g., "more milk" or action sentences like "Peppa sleep".
- Understanding basic instructions, e.g., "Show me your nose".
- Vocabulary spurt – up to 300 words.
pre school age:
- Vocabulary increases to 1,000-2,000 words.
- Can tell simple stories, use pronouns and temporal language (today/yesterday), and demonstrate understanding of tenses.
- Beginning to learn phonemes (basic units of sound).
35
# theories of language acquisition
learning theory
- based on imitation, conditioning and reinforcement
- children learn language by mimicking what they hear
limitations:
- Does not explain how children create novel sentences or how they learn grammatical rules (e.g., "goed" vs. "went").
- doesn't explain critical period for language development
36
# theories of language acquisition
Chomsky
= universal grammer: all children are born with an innate ability to aquire language through a language acquisition device (LAD).
- children can infer linguistic rules from the input they receive
- explains why they can say sentences they have never heard before
limitations:
No focus on social input from caregivers; theory is highly theoretical and not empirical.
37
# theories of language acquisition
Piaget
= language development follows cognitive development
- Cognitive abilities (like schemas and mental representations) develop first, which then support language learning.
egocentric speech = child struggles to differentiate their own perspedtive from others
limitations:
- Minimizes social interactions and does not fully account for between-subject differences.
- underestimating children
38
# language acquisition theories
Social theorists (Vygotsky, Bruner)
= social interaction is essential for langauge development
- bi-directional relationship between thought and language
- Private speech aids problem-solving (not to be confused with egocentric speech).
Criticism: Underemphasis on biological factors in language development.
39
how does language support socio-emotional development?
- Enables emotional expression and understanding of others’ emotions.
- Strengthens social relationships and enhances problem-solving skills.
- Fosters empathy by helping children understand other people's perspectives.
40
how does baby talk support development?
infant directed speech = speech with exaggerated tones, pitch and rhythms.
- Promotes social engagement through turn-taking, eye contact, and learning social cues.
- Strengthens emotional bonds between caregivers and infants.
- Talking through routines helps with learning and problem-solving.
41
the definition of empathy
3 components:
1. the emotional component:
- a vicarious affective response to anothers emotion
- The response must be appropriate: it must match, mirror, and be directed to another (not oneself).
2. the cognitive component:
- intellectual understanding of anothers mental state
- realizing that others have thoughts/ experiences outside of our own
-Problem: this definition means were saying empathy isn't present in children under 5 years old.
3. the motivational component
- a natural drive to emotionally engage with others
- Empathy motivates goal-directed behaviors, reducing spontaneous behaviors in extreme cases like psychopathy.
- Evolutionary foundation with individual differences.
42
empathy across the lifespan
Empathy evolves across various stages of development, with increasingly complex cognitive and emotional processes.
The development of empathy follows a trajectory that involves distinguishing self vs other and increasing complexity.
43
empathy in infancy: neonatal antecedants of empathy
stage 1: birth
- passive emotional resonance, responding to others emotional cues.
- newborns can distinguish between natural and synthetic cries, with biological triggers for empathy
- Gender differences observed in infant social responses (e.g., girls look at normal faces more, boys focus longer on jumbled faces).
stage 2: 2 months onwards
- Active reciprocation, social smiling, and more complex face-to-face engagement with caregivers.
- Emergence of co-constructed experiences and reciprocal games.
stage 3: 6-9months
- Infants begin to share attention with others.
- Development of secondary intersubjectivity, where the baby shares attention towards objects or others.
stage 4: 14 months onwards
- Self-recognition emerges (mirror recognition).
- Ability to project oneself into others, leading to projective empathy.
- Discriminating between imitators starts.
stage 5: 24 months onwards
- Emergence of self-conscious emotions (e.g., embarrassment, shame, guilt, pride).
- Ability to conceptualize self in relation to others.
stage 6: 4-6 years
- Ability to understand others’ emotions and mental states, adopting a theoretical stance.
- Full development of false belief recognition and ability to predict others’ behaviors.
44
is self-recognition key to empathy?
Yes, it is important but not the only factor.
Distress expression and action to alleviate distress in others emerge after self-recognition.
Distinction between self and others (self-objectification) is crucial for empathy.
Study: Children who pass the mirror recognition task are more likely to comfort others in distress.
45
theory of mind
refers to how we attribute mental states to others and use those mental states to predict behavior.
Criticism: Theory of mind is sometimes misapplied in understanding conditions like autism.
46
empathy in teenagers and older adults
Empathy in Teenagers:
Empathy becomes more similar to adult-like definitions of kindness and prosocial behavior during adolescence.
Adolescents justify their prosocial actions using a broader range of reasons.
Empathic concern is a prominent feature of adolescent reasoning.
Empathy in Older Adults:
Older adults show a shift in emotional regulation, using more passive strategies.
There is a decrease in the ability to integrate emotion and cognition, and a stronger focus on emotion regulation.
Decreased expression of anger and emotional regulation goals shift in priority.
47
disrupted empathy development
- severe abuse and neglect can disrupt development of empathy
- early trauma may lead to difficulties in emotional regulation, attatchment and social functioning.
48
dysfunctional socialisation effects
- Poor socialization can lead to cognitive delays, attachment issues, and emotional regulation problems.
- Neglect and abuse can affect brain physiology, leading to problems with empathy.
Early childhood is critical for forming neural pathways needed for emotional understanding.
First 2 years are essential for emotional and memory function development.
Brain maturation is genetically determined but sensitive to the environment.
49
atypical empathy and caregiver abuse and neglect
- Differences in empathy presentation are normal and can vary between individuals and conditions.
atypical presetations of empathy associated with ADHD, autism, bipolar, personality disorders, OCD
disrupted development examples:
caregiver neglect = leads to cognitive delays, attatchment problems and social withdrawal
caregiver abuse = associated with aggressive behaviours, decreased empathy and increased psychological disorders.
50
neurodiversity and autism
neurodiversity concept = not all people think or feel in the same way, focus on differences rather than deficits.
autism = associated with challenges in social communication, restricted behaviours and sensory processing.
- considered to have deficits in cognitive and emotional empathy (simplification)
- difficulties with theory of mind
51
an avolved definition of empathy
| 4 steps
step 1:
noticing someone else's emotional behaviour- difficulty in noticing social cues due to attention allocation differences.
step 2:
interpretting the emotion- challenging for some people with autism due to self-other representation difficulties.
step 3:
resonate with the emotion- no doifference in neurodivergent individuals but is hard to measure
step 4:
responding appropriately- challenges arise due to societal norms and double empathy issues (misunderstandings between autistic and non-autistic people).
52
masking and camouflaging
Masking refers to suppressing natural behaviors to meet societal expectations.
Camouflage refers to adopting behaviors to fit in.
Both are associated with fatigue, depression, anxiety, and suicidal ideation and are a response to step 4.
autisitic people caan learn how to mask by observing and mirroring actions of others.
53
non- neurodiveregent atypical empathy
hyper empathy:
- Some individuals may experience heightened emotional empathy, though its measurement is controversial.
- Linked to conditions like borderline personality disorder and mirror-touch synesthesia (feeling others’ touch).
dark empathy;
- The Dark Triad (Machiavellianism, narcissism, psychopathy) can be associated with what is called dark empathy.
- Dark empaths tend to exhibit high extraversion, normal agreeableness, and more indirect aggression.
- narcissistic and antisocial personality disorder.
54
empathy in personality disorders
Narcissistic personality disorder:
- Typically associated with deficits in empathy, but variability exists.
- Cognitive empathy: Dysfunctional but present.
- Emotional empathy: Deficient, particularly for emotions like sadness or fear.
- eg cult leaders
Psychopathy:
- is characterized by disturbances in emotional, interpersonal, and behavioral domains.
Deficits in emotional empathy but intact cognitive empathy.
Psychopaths often lack empathy for others' emotions, particularly negative ones (e.g., fear, sadness, disgust).
- no impairment in theory of mind
55
biological contributions to gender development
1. prenatal influences = hormones and genes -> impact the sexual differentiation of genitals and brain although the neurobiological mechanisms are not well understood.
2. atypical chromosomal conditions = (e.g., CAH) and atypical testosterone exposure may lead to gender nonconformity and influence gender roles socially, cognitively, and physically.
3. Gender specific behaviours = can be influenced by prenatal testosterone. Cannot ethically experimentally manipulate Y chromosome.
56
experiential/ social contributions to gender development
- gender is largely shaped by socialisation, children are exposed to differential treatment based on gender, including reinforcement of gender roles in school, family, and religious contexts.
- Social influences such as reward and punishment for gendered behaviours, imitation, and modeling play critical roles.
- Cognitive processes help children learn and actively engage in gender role behaviours as active agents, not passive recipients of external influences.
57
traditional theories of gender development
1. evolutionary theories
- focus on sex-typed behaviours, emphasizing reproduction-related behaviours. These are untestable hypotheses that do not account for individual variation.
2. cognitive and social theories
- explore how children develop gender schemas and adjust behaviours according to gendered norms in their culture.
- cognitive aspect has greater focus on internal motivation/drive of the child
3. Dual Pathway Theory suggests that gender attitudes and interests can predict behaviour, influencing self-efficacy and the regulation of gender-typed conduct.
58
developmental milestones in gender development
1. infancy
- by 4 months infants can distinguish between male and female faces
- by 6 months they can recognise differences in faces and voice by sex.
- linked to biological, environmental, and social influences.
2. gender constancy
- Gender Labelling (Age 3): Identifying themselves and others by gender.
Gender Stability (Age 5): Understanding that gender is stable over time (boys become men, girls become women).
Gender Constancy (Age 7): Realizing that gender is biologically fixed and cannot be changed by outward appearance (contingent on cognitive development).
59
influence of sexism on gender development
Institutional sexism (e.g., in education) can hinder gender equality, and interpersonal sexism (e.g., from parents and peers) can reinforce harmful gender roles.
Internalized sexism can affect self-perception, leading to issues like toxic masculinity or limited self-efficacy among girls.
60
gender non conformity
- Children who exhibit gender nonconformity might be seen as having an identity that lies outside societal expectations, and this may eventually develop into gender dysphoria.
- Gender dysphoria can lead to feelings of discontent with the body or identity and may be expressed very early in life, often leading to distress during puberty.
- Gender euphoria describes the satisfaction felt when a person's gender identity aligns with gendered characteristics not assigned at birth.
- Many individuals with gender dysphoria show signs of gender nonconformity in childhood.
- In the past, gender identity disorder (GID) was a clinical term but was considered pathologizing. Gender dysphoria is now the more accepted term.
- Prevalence estimates of gender dysphoria range from 0.05% to 1.2% of the population.
61
the myths of childhood
1. human personality is mainly formed by early childhood memories
-The idea of a "blank slate" and that childhood trauma permanently affects personality is misleading
- research that there is no permanent effect of sexual abuse
2. mental disorders are caused by early childhood experiences
- have an influence but other factors involved
3. Effective psychotherapy depends on how thoroughly one's childhood issues were delt with
- may influence behaviour, but many focus on present day.
62
Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)
= acute or chronic stressful events(biological or psycholigical) during childhood that lead to a stress response.
- mild adversity can be beneficial for growth and resillience
- Excessive adversity can disrupt brain, body, and mind functioning.
-The effect of adversity accumulates over time or during sensitive developmental periods.
- Reactions to stress are individually variable, with some people being more resilient.
63
resillience
= the ability to adapt and recover successfully from stressful life events
key systems contributing to resillience:
- families
- services
- social groups
- wider community
sources of resilience:
1. personal factors: personality traits, self-regulation and coping mechanisms
2. biological factors: brain size, neural networks, sensitivity to receptors
3. environmental: support systems, community, quality of relationships
4. the interaction between these:
- social experiences can alter gene expression, all influence each other
64
resillience across the lifespan
- may increase with older age, after traumatic events
can we train resillience?
Seligman’s PERMA Model:
p = positive emotion
e = engagement
r = relationships
m = meaning
a = accomplishments
PI-PE Model: This model focuses on positive psychology and resilience training to avoid burnout.
Training resilience can help prevent burnout but may inadvertently increase pressure if not managed properly. It's essential to balance training with personal well-being.
65
Intergenerational Stress and Resilience
- Evidence of intergenerational trauma exists, particularly in populations affected by historical events such as the Holocaust.
Epigenetic changes: Trauma experienced by one generation can affect future generations through epigenetic changes, influencing how genes are expressed.
Is Resilience Intergenerational?
Yes, resilience and stress responses can be passed down, not just genetically but also through environmental factors and coping strategies learned across generations.
sus
flashcards
Decks in class (14)
# Cards
-
systems to cells 1-548
-
systenms to cells lecture 6-813
-
research planning and design lecture 114
-
research planning and design lecture 217
-
research planning and design lecture 312
-
reseach design and planning lecture 413
-
research planning and design 513
-
statistical analysis44
-
individual differences lecture 1-442
-
individual diiferences l5-954
-
microbes and the immune system85
-
ageing and disease60
-
cognitive psych53
-
developmental psych65
