What is confidentiality?
Participants’ personal information must be kept private and protected.
How is confidentiality maintained?
Anonymising data (no names)
Using participant codes
Secure data storage
Why is confidentiality important?
Protects participants from harm or embarrassment
− May be difficult in small or unique samples
What is deception?
Misleading participants about the true aim or nature of the study.
When might deception be used?
To reduce demand characteristics and obtain valid behaviour.
Strengths and weaknesses of deception?
Increases internal validity
− Ethical concern → lack of informed consent
− Must be justified and followed by debrief
What is protection from harm?
Participants must not be exposed to stress, anxiety, humiliation, or pain beyond normal life.
How is protection from harm ensured?
Risk assessments
Right to withdraw
Debriefing
Why is this important?
Prevents psychological and physical harm
− Some studies (e.g. obedience research) may still cause distress
What ethical issue relates to personal impact on participants?
Risk to participants’ values, beliefs, relationships, status, or privacy.
Why is this important?
Protects dignity and social wellbeing
− Hard to fully predict all risks
What is valid consent?
Participants must fully understand the study and agree to take part.
How is valid consent obtained?
Information sheets
Consent forms
Opportunity to ask questions
Issues with valid consent?
Difficult when deception is used
− Participants may not fully understand complex studies
Who are vulnerable individuals?
People unable to fully protect their own interests (e.g. children, individuals with disabilities).
How are they protected?
Parental/guardian consent
Extra care and monitoring
Right to withdraw emphasised
What ethical considerations apply to animal research?
Animals must be treated humanely, with minimal suffering.
How is ethical animal research ensured?
Proper housing and care
Minimising pain
Using alternatives where possible
Strengths and weaknesses?
Can provide valuable scientific insights
− Ethical concerns about animal rights and suffering
How are ethical issues managed in research?
Following ethical guidelines (e.g. professional codes)
Ethics committees review research proposals
Debriefing participants
Strengths and limitations of ethical guidelines?
Protect participants and standardise practice
− May restrict important research
− Ethical decisions can still be subjective
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milgram and Kohlberg34
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research methods32
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methodologies54
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location of research16
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sampling20
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experimental design9
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levels of measurement11
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graphical representation18
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descriptive statistics11
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inferential statistics24
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reliability and validity22
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ethics21
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personal investigation x277
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role of the scientific community in validating new knowledge12
