1
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Scientific Method
A
Means of gathering information, making conclusions and testing those conclusions
2
Q
Types of questions: descriptions
A
what happens
3
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Types of questions: prediction
A
when does it happen
4
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Types of questions: explanation
A
why does it happen
5
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Theory
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- general explanation
- must be falsifiable
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Hypothesis
A
specific testable prediction
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Operalization
A
Specific concrete way of thinking about a psychological construct
(there are many ways to operationalize the same psychological construct
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Q
Construct validity
A
the degree to which the operalization used to reflect the psychological construct of interest
9
Q
Types of measures
A
Self reports
Observational
Psychological
Archival
10
Q
Self reports
A
- Could be an open-ended or a fixed response
- must watch out for social desirability concerns
- sentiment override
11
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Observational measures
A
inter-rater reliability is key
12
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Sample
A
People from whom data are collected
13
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Population
A
group about which the researcher wants to draw conclusions from
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Q
Obtaining participants
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Convenience sample
Representative sample
15
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Correlation is necessary for (but does not imply) causation meaning
A
X may cause Y
Y may cause X
OR some other variable may cause X and Y
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Longitudanal design
A
- correlation
- daily diary
- experience sampling
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Q
experimental design requirements
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Dependent variable
independent variable
control
random assignment
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Q
External Validity
A
-Extent to which results can be generalized
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Internal validity
A
extent to which it is possible to draw conlusions about the hypotheses from the data
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Extraneous variable
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variable capable of explaining findings
21
Q
Threats to internal validity
A
- social desirability
- demand characteristics
- organismic variables
- selective or distorted memory
22
Q
Invalid operational definitions
A
Item overlap problem
23
Q
Item overlap problem (content contamination)
A
In psychology constructs of depression anxiety and neuroticism covary
24
Q
Item overlap problem (content contamination) : depression
A
Sadness
- i don’t feel sad
- i feel sad much of the time
- i feel sad all of the time
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Item overlap problem (content contamination) : Anxiety
i feel sad
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Item overlap problem (content contamination) : neuroticism
i am seldom sad or depressed
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Statistical Significance
The researcher assumes the null hypothesis is true, collects data, and examines how likely it would be to get those data is the null hypothesis is true
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P value
Risk of mistakenly rejecting null hypothesis
if P < .05 the null hypothesis is rejected
----If this happens the research hypothesis is supported and the result is statistically significant
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Limitations to statistical significance : Publication Bias
publish only statistically significant results (rather than null results)
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Clinical/Practical significance : Effect Size
- Degree to which the phenomenon is present in the population (degree to which the null hypothesis is false)
- Used to estimate power (probability that is a statistiacal test will lead to rejection of the null hypothesis)
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R(rsquared = coefficient of determinations: Cohen's d guidelines for interpretations
```
Small = .10
medium = .30
Large = . 50
```
32
R(rsquared = coefficient of determinations: Gignac and Szodorai's (2016) guidelines for interpretation
- Recommended guidlines based on empirical evaluation of 708 correlations in meta-analyses published in 6 journals
- small (25th percentile ) : .10
- medium (50th percentile ): .20
- Large (75th percentile): .30
33
Importance of replication :
- Researchers test aspects of theories through many different studies
- Contradictory and initially stronger effects in Highly Cited Clinical research
- Estimating the reproductability Psychological Science
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Importance of replication : Researchers test aspects of theories through many different studies
- The more studies there are that demonstrate results supporting the theory the more confidence researcher have in theory
- If study results contradicts a theory the theory is modified and the modified theory is tested
35
Importance of replication : Contradictory initially stronger effects in Highly Cited Clinical research
- Evaluated highly-cited (>1000) original clinical research studies
- Of 49 studies, 45 claimed an intervention was effective
- ---16% contradicted the subsequent studies
- ---16% found effects stronger than subsequent studies
- ---44% were replicated
- ---24% remained largely unchallenged
36
Importance of replication: Estimating the reproductability Psychological Science
- Replication of 100 experimental and correlational studies in social and cognitive psychology using highly powered designs and original material when availabe
- mean effect size of replication effects ( r= .20) was half magnitude of original effects (r =.20)
- -97% of original studies had significant results (p< .05) comparted to 36% of replication studies
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Meta analysis definition
Statistical methodof individual studies
--- By combining results across studies, we (a) increase power, and (b) improve the precision of our estimate of effect size
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Meta Analysis steps
- Select studies to include in analysis (need to be thorough, include all relevant studies)
- Convert results to effect (eg. d or r)
- Weight effect sizes (e.g. sample size) average across studies
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Ethical issues : Researchers are obligated to make sure
Participants:
- time isn't wasted (ie. studies have to be well designed)
- answer aren't shared with others (confidentiality and anonymity)
- aren't harmed by the participating studies
- know waht to expect (ie, they are asked for informed consent)
- --Participating are not told about the hypothesis; they are told what participating in the study will be like
40
Theoretical Frameworks:
- The evolutionary perspective
- Key Hypotheses
- Other hypothesis
- Empirical Support
- Limitation
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Theoretical Frameworks: The evolutionary perspective
- people need intimate relationships to survive
- people with preferences for a mat
- -Sexual strategies
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Theoretical Frameworks: The evolutionary perspective -- Sexual Strategies
- Both men and women pursue short term and long term mating under conditions where reproductive benefits outweigh costs
- Because of fundamental asymmetry between exces in minimum levels of parental investment (higher for women), adaptive problems that women must solve when pursuing each strategy differ from those that men must solve when pursuing each strategy differ from those that men must solve
- Men and women have evolved distinct psychological mechanisms ("sexual strategies") to solve adaptive problems confronted to effectively pursue short and long term mating
43
Theoretical Frameworks: The evolutionary perspective -- Sexual Strategies ------ Because of fundamental asymmetry between exces in minimum levels of parental investment (higher for women), adaptive problems that women must solve when pursuing each strategy differ from those that men must solve when pursuing each strategy differ from those that men must solve
-- Women : ensure that each child has a great chance of survival
--- Men: ensure acces to fertile and selective mates, ensure that pairings result in surviving children and ensure that they are genetically related to any children to whom they contriubute resources
44
Theoretical Frameworks: The evolutionary perspective -- Sexual Strategies ------ Men and women have evolved distinct psychological mechanisms ("sexual strategies") to solve adaptive problems confronted to effectively pursue short- and long term mating
- - Women : be more selective about mates and choose high quality mates (i.e. who have resources who are willing to commit those resources and who can protect her and her children)
- - Men : idetify which mates are fertile and mate with as many fertile partners as possible
45
Theoretical Frameworks: Key Hypotheses
Short term mating should represent a larger component of men's relative to women's sexual strategies
- - sex differences in desire for short term mating relationships
- - Sex differences in preference for number of sexual partners
- - sex differences in time required for having sex
46
Thoretical Frameworks: Other hypothesis
- compared to women, men will place a greater emphasis on reproductive value (youth and heath)
- Compared to men, women will place a greater emphasis
47
Theoretical Frameworks: Empirical Support
- Cross- national sex differences in desire for seuxal variety
(16,288 people across from 10 major world regions)
- Compared ot women men
-- more actively seek a short term mate (d = . 31, -67)
-- more likely to consent to sex after knowing someone for a short period of time ( 1- month; d . 80)
-- desire larger numbers of sexual partners (d = .40 = .49)
*culturally universal sex differences in sociosexually
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Theoretical Frameworks: Limitations
Are there differences in actual behaviors?
Example -- Attractive man or woman confederate approached strangers of the opposite sex on college campus
"I have been noticing you around campus I find you very attractive."
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Theoretical Frameworks: Limitations
Limitations on self report
Sex differences
- Questionnaires completed in three conditions
- --exposure threat
- -- anonymous
- --bogus pipeline
- reported on number of sexual partners
50
Theoretical Frameworks: Limitations
Limitations on self report
Gender differences
- Asled about academic and romantic cheating
- --No interaction between gender and condition for academic cheating
- --Interaction for extradyadic behavior
51
Theoretical Frameworks: Limitations
How important are the mate characteristics in which the sexes differ?
- women scored higher than men on more traits ( they were choosier than men)
- Women placed more emphasis on traits associated with social status, ambition, good job prospects, and physical strength; men placed more empahsis on traits associated with physcial attractiveness and youth
- However rank orders of most important traits were very similar for women and men
52
Attachement Framework: Definitional Issues
- Innate psychobiological system that motivates people to seek proximity to significant others in times of need as means of protecting oneself from threats and alleviating distress
- Available and responsive attachment figures serves as a "secure base" and promotes sense of "felt security"
- Repeated interactions with attachment figures results in "internal working models" of relationships
53
Attachement Framework: Adult Attachment
Intimate Relationships
Hazan and Shaver 1988
- Simple, categorical measure of attachment styles
- ---- infant parent attachment
- --- Distributions similar to infancy ( 55% secure, 25% avoidant, 20% anxious
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Attachement Framework: Adult Attachment
Intimate Relationships
Bartholomew and Horowitz (1991)
Two dimensions
i. View of self -- deserving of love? (positive vs negative)
ii. Resulted in 4 attachment styles
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Attachement Framework: Adult Attachment
Intimate Relationships
Brennan, Clark and Shaver (1998)
- Studies way in which attachment statements hang together (factor analysis)
- -Two dimensions
i. Avoidance -- distrust other's goodwill and strive to maintain behavioral independence and emotioanl distance
ii. anxiety -- worry that others will not be availabe in times of need (in part because of fears of being unlovable)
56
Attachement Framework: Adult Attachment
Changes in adults attachment in college students (Konrath et a. 2014)
1. Meta analysis of 94 samples between 1988 and 2011 (N = 24, 243 students)
- -- Changes over time
a. percentage with Secure attachment styles has decreased (1988: 49%, 2011 : 42%)
b. percentage with Insecure attachment styles (Dismissing, Preoccupied, Fearful) has increased ( 1988: 51%, 2011: 58%)
c. percentage with Dismissing has increased (1988: 12%, 2011: 19%), controlling for age gender and race
3. Possible explanations
1. changes in parenting and family practices (e.g. changes in mother's labor force participation, family structure [e.g. divorce], decreasing reliance on extended families)
2. change in media content and usage
57
Social Exchange Theory : Independence Theory
Evaluate relationships in terms of:
1. Rewards (desirable, gratifying )
2. Costs (undesirable, punishing, require effort)
3. Barriers to leaving
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Social Exchange Theory : Independence Theory
Economic model of relationships
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Social Exchange Theory : Independence Theory
Key Hypotheses
1. Outcome (profits or losses) = rewards - costs
2. Satisfaction = outcome - comparison level (CL expectations; what you believe you deserve)
- --equity : people will be most satisfied if their outcomes are comparable to their partners' outcomes
- -- if inequitable, people will try to restore equity
3. Dependece = Outcome - Comparison level for alternatives ( Clalt: your other options)
60
Social Exchange Theory : Independence Theory
| Commonly used measures
direct questions asking about levels of rewards, costs, etc.
61
Social Exchange Theory : Investment Model
A. Stability in relationships is largely due to commitment
1. Definition: Degree to which person experiences long-term orientation toward relationship, including intent to persist and feelings of psychological attachment
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Social Exchange Theory : Investment Model
B. Elements of commitment
1. satisfaction level
2. quality of alternative
3. investment size
63
Social Exchange Theory : Investment Model
Findings regarding model
Le & Angnew's (2003)
```
meta-analysis of correlates of commitment
a. interpersonal relationships ( 39-41 studies, 7,664 - 8,000 participants)
I. satisfaction : r = .71
ii. Alternatives: r = .52
iii. Investments: r= . 48
b. Job
i. satisfaction: r = .51
ii. alternatives: r = . 26
iii. investment: r = . 34
c. Other non- interpersonal
i. satisfaction: r = .31
ii. Alternatives: r = . -0.6
iii. Investments: r=. 43
```
64
Social Exchange Theory : Investment Model
D E F
D. Commitment increases probability of prorelationship maintenance phenomena
E. These pro-relationship maintenance phenomena impact quality of couple functioning
F. IF we observe partner's pro-relationship acts (i.e. diagnostic situations), AND we judge this due to their commitment, THEN trust increases
65
Social Learning Theory : Basic Principles
A. Emphasis on positive and negative behavior exchanged between partners (behaviors is "final common pathway")
B. Partners are likely to repeat behaviors that are rewarded (and not repeat behaviors that are not rewarded)
C. Partners lean about the quality of their relationship from each interaction
-- appraisals of each interaction accumulate
D. Negative behavior exists in relastionships because it is reinforced
1. If Partner A's negative behavior (yelling getting angry) results in desired change in Partner B( attention, agreement to do something,) then Partner A's behavior is more likely to reoccur
66
Social Learning Theory : Assessment
Commonly used measures
1. observation of communication [to be covered later]
2. assessment of behaviors
a. spouse/partner observation checklist
67
Social Learning Theory : Primary Findings
Communication
1. Negatively reciprocity - respond to partner negative behavior with your own negative behavior
a. negatively correlated with relationship satisfaction and stability
2. other communication behaviors
68
Social Learning Theory : Primary Findings
Behaviors
1. General satisfaction is associated with more positive and fewer negative behavior
2. Daily satisfaction is associated with daily rates of positive and negative behavior ("reactivity")
a. Dissatisfied partners are more reactive than satisfied partners
b. Dissatisfied partners may "keep score" whereas satisfied partners may operate on " bank account" principle
69
Social Ecological Models : Basic Principles
A. Take the broader context into account
1. microsystem, mesosystme, and macrosystem
B. includes consideration of stresses, supports, and constraints that are external to the relationship
1. ABC - X and Double ABC- X models
C. If the couple has adequate resources, external stress can strengthen relationship; if not, it can weaken relationship
1. stress and coping
70
Thinking about theories
A. Common themes or categories that cut across theories
1. individual differences
a. chracteristics of a person (actor) and partner
2. Dyadic interaction
3. External circumstances
B. Variables within theories may be associated with and interact with one another
71
Attraction
a. insider's perspective
1. traits considered most important in a relationship partner in a global sample of 218,000 heterosexual and homosexual men and women internet users
a. intelligence
b. humor
c. honestly
d. kindess
e. good looks
72
Attractive
Similarity
1. assessed through (a) calculating similarity between people and testing whether degree of similarity is associated with attraction, or (b) phantom- other technique
2. Attraction is associated with actual similarity
a. meta-analysis of similarity (of attitudes and personality) and attraction
i. overall effect size: r = .47
ii. larger in lab studies (r = . 59) than existing relationships (r = . 08)
3. Attraction is associated with perceived similarity
a. Meta- analysis of similarity (of attitudes and personality) and attraction
i. overall effect size r = . 39
ii. similar in lab studies (r= . 49) and existing relationships (r = .32)
73
Similarity is attractive because:
- It validates our ideas and attitudes (satisfies our effectance motive)
- they are easier to get along with (greater agreement and common knowlege/ experiences associated with less conflict)
c. We expect them to be more likley to like us
d. (evolutionsarily advangeous because greater percentage of one's genes are pased on to offspring (ie. one's own genes and genes that are shared with mating partner)
74
I. Attraction
| C. Familiarity
1. Mere exposure effect: We like people, pictures, and objects that we have seen more frequently
a. but this only if the exposure is neutral or positive
b. overexposure does not enhance attraction
75
I. Attraction
| d. Reciprocity
1. were are more likely to like those who like us
| 2. especially if we think the liking is due to something about us (rather than just because the person likes everyone)
76
II. Physical Attraction
A. Is beauty in the eye of the beholder?
1. No, raters agree about what is and is not attractive, both within and across culture
2. standards do not seem to be learned
3. beauty may not be socially constructed
77
II. Physical Attraction
B. Do we judge books by their covers?
1. Yes, attractive children and adults are judged and treated more positively
78
II. Physical Attraction
C. What makes a face attrative
1. Symmetry
- mean effect size
2. Mathematical average (average for a population)
- mean effect size
3. Sexual dimorphism: Physical differences between males and females of same species
a. Women: small chin, small lower face, full lips
- mean effect size
b. Men: square chinm thick brows, thin lips, small eyes
Mean effect size : .35
- preferences shift toward masculine faces during fertile phase of menstrual cycle
79
II. Physical Attraction
D. Why do we prefer attractive face?
1. Cognitive averaging theory
- prefer average face because closer to mental prototype (more "face like")
- preference for average could be by product of familiarity and preference for familiar stimuli
2. Evolutionary Theory
- Attractiveness is indicator of fitness, health, and reproductive value
80
II. Physical Attraction
E. people tend to pair with partner similar to them in physical appearance (matching phenomenon)
1. meta-analysis of 27 samples
- meta-analysis of 27 samples
- ---mean inter-partner correlation = .39
2. We may desire most attractive partners, but opposing forces, such as desire to avoid rejection, are strong
81
People have a "what is beautiful is good" stereotype
1. people tend to think that attractive people are smarter, frienlier, and nicer overall
2. because of the self-fulfilling prophecy, attractive people may indeed be a litle nicer and friendlier
a. they are treated by others as though they were nice and friednlier
b. this prompts them to actually be nicer and friendlier
82
Pratfall effect:
people who are percieved as competent in general are seen as more likeable if they make a mitake (ie they appear more human)
83
Misattribution of arousal
if people meet in a situation where their heart rates elevated, they may beileve, the arousal was caused by the other and therefore will find the other more attractive
84
III. Attraction -- Other factors
People may lack awareness of what influences their judgements and behavior
1. Speed Dating
a. Sex differences in stated preferences (women > men for earning prospects, men > women for physical attractiveness)
b. No sex difference in associations between attractiveness or earning potential and attraction (relationship initiation)
c. ideal preferences unrelated to actual preferences
85
Scent of Attraction
Major histocompatibility complex (MHC)
1. MHC genes encode cell-surface glycoproteins that help recognize foreign peptides and initiate immune response
86
Scent of attraction
| B C
B. Genetic dissimilarity between potential enhances immunocompetence of their offspring
C. In mice, MHC associated mate choice mediated by odor cues
87
Scent of attraction
| D. MHC- dependent mate preferences in humans
1. Women rated T-shirts worn by men for two nights
- women preferred odors of men who were MHC dissimilar
2. Opposite results found for women using the oral contraceptive pill
- may mimic pregnancy - drawn to kin who are more likely to assist in offspring care
88
Scent of attraction
| E. Follow - up studies
1. Not all studies have replicated results
- Findings across six main studies
2. MHC and perfume preferences
- Association between MHC and perfume preference for oneself
- No associaton for perfume preference for partner
- perfume use may promote odor cues in way in ways that clarifies their MHC type
3. Women's sexual responsivity and unfaithness
a. As a proportion of shared MHC allele increased:
i. as a proportion of shared MHC allele increased:
- --------sexual responsivity to partner decreased
- -------- number of extra pair sexual partner increased
- -------- attraction to men other than primary partner increased
4. MHC and oral contracepttives
- ---Participants tested twice: some began contraceptive pill use after first test
- --Preference shift towards MHC similarity for women who started taking the pill but normally cycling women
89
V. other Hormonal influences
A. Oral contraception and relationship satisfaction
- congruency hypothesis: Women will be more satisfied if conguent in current and previous oral contraception use
- congruency was associated with greater sexual satisfaction (but not nonsexual) in women and unrelated to satisfaction in men
90
Social penetration theory
communication moves, from shallow, non intiate levels to deeper personal levels
91
Disclosure reciprocity
disclosing information that is more personal, and covers a wider variety of toopics over time
a. this increases feelings of closeness & intimacy
92
VI. Mate selection
Where do people meet their future spouse?
1. national sample of 19, 131 people who married between 2005 and 2012
2. more than 1/3 began on line
3. marriages that began on line were slighly less likely to break up and were associated with slightly higher marital satisfaction
93
VII. Assortative Mating
A. Nonrandom coupling based on resemblance of partners on given characteristic
1. can be similar or complementary
B. Newlywed couples
1. Important for initial assortment (versus convergence over time)
C. Strong similarity in age (r = .77), religousness (r-. 75) , political orientation (r =.63)
D. Moderate similarity in education and intelligence (rs = .42, -.46)
E. little similarity in values ( mean r= .16, personality (rs= -.17, -.07), or attachment (rs = .01 -.26)
94
VII. Is human mating adventitious or result of lawful choice?
B. Replication in large sample of Austrailian twins and their families (total number of participants > 27,000; Zietsch et al, 2011)
1. Large correlations between partners on age, religiousity and eduction
a. Small correlations for personality (rs < .17)
b. no genetic effect in either males or females for any individual trait
3. Strongest support for familial effect found income and age of females and partners
4. No support for sexual imprinting effect effect (ie. opposite sex parent is template for desirable mate)
Intimate Relationships
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