Bio Foundations > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Kinetic energy

A

energy of motion

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2
Q

Potential energy

A

energy stored in position or configuration

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3
Q

First Law of Thermodynamics

A

energy is conserved
cannot be created or destroyed
can only be transferred or transformed

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4
Q

Second law of thermodynamics

A

Entropy always increases
Products of a chemical reaction will always be less ordered than the reactants

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5
Q

Gibbs free energy(G)

A

Determines wether a reaction is spontaneous or requires an input of energy to proceed

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6
Q

Endergonic

A

Chemical reactions are nonspontaneous when change in G is greater than 0

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7
Q

Exergonic

A

Chemical reactions are spontaneous when change in G is less than 0

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8
Q

Enthalpy(H)

A

potential energy of a molecule (heat content) in chemical bonds
Total energy

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9
Q

Reduction-oxidation(redox) reactions

A

Transfer of electrons
Oxidation is the exergonic half of reaction while reduction is the endergonic

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10
Q

Oxidized

A

Loses one or more electrons

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11
Q

Reduced

A

Gains one or more electrons

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12
Q

ATP- transfer of phosphate group

A

ATP to ADP and Pi
Highly exergonic reaction

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13
Q

Activation energy

A

amount of kinetic energy required to reach the transition state of a reaction
Enzymes lower activation energy(speed up chemical reaction)
Does not effect change in G

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14
Q

Enzyme three step process

A

Initiation- substrates bind to the active site
Transition State- binding of the substrate results in the enzyme changing shape
Termination- the products have a lower affinity for the active site than the reactants so they are released

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15
Q

Cofactors

A

zinc, magnesium, iron

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16
Q

Coenzymes

A

NADH, FADH2

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17
Q

Competitive Inhibition

A

regulatory molecule binds to and blocks active site. Non-covalent enzyme regulation

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18
Q

Allosteric regulation

A

regulatory molecule binds to site other than active site. Changes shape of enzyme.
Allosteric activation-helpful
Allosteric inhibition-inhibiting

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19
Q

Covalent enzyme regulations

A

Cleavage of peptides
Addition of phosphate groups(changes configuration of enzyme, may activate or inactivate)
Phosphoralate and dephosphoralate

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20
Q

Feedback Inhibition

A

final product inhibits an enzyme found earlier in the pathway

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21
Q

Overall reaction to cellular respiration

A

C6H12 + 6H2O + 6O2 — 12H2O + 6CO2 + 29ATP

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22
Q

Glycosis reaction and location

A

Cytosol
Glucose + 2ATP + 2 NAD+ —- 2 pyruvic acid + 4ATP + 2NADH + 2H+
Net gain of 2 ATP
Anaerobic

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23
Q

Cellular respiration steps in order

A

Glycosis, Formation of Acetyl CoA, Citric acid cycle, electron transport chain

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24
Q

Formation of Acetyl CoA location, reaction, ad explanation

A

Mitochondria
Pyruvate enters mitochondrial matrix, complex enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase(PDH) catalyzes series of reactions
2 pyruvic acid + 2NADH+ + 2Co-enzyme A — 2 Acetyl CoA + 2NADH + 2CO2

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25
Citric Acid Cycle explanation
Series of 8 reactions, occurs in mitochondrial matrix, for each acetyl CoA that enters the cycle there are also 3 NADH+ and 1 FAD entering as well Acetyl CoA will combine with another molecule and undergo a series of reactions Complete oxidation of glucose
26
Results of each citric acid cycle
3 NADH + 3H+ 1 FADH2 2 CO2 1 ATP x2 per molecule of glucose
27
Where does the energy from glucose go after the citric acid cycle?
Stored in NADH and FADH2
28
Electron transport chain explanation
Occurs in inner membrane of mitochondria series of redox reactions occur as electrons are passed from one protein complex to the next Proteins are organized into 4 main complexes(Ubiquinone(Q) and cytochrome C shuttle electrons between complexes) NADH + H+ and FADH2 become electron donors. Give up electrons to complex 1 and 2 Q accepts electrons from complex 1 and 2, it picks up an H+ which is released into intermembrane space 1 and 4 use energy from redox reactions to pump H+ into intermembrane space H+ creates an electrochemical gradient. H+ diffuses back into matrix using ATP synthase(chemiosmosis)
29
ATP synthase components
F0 is the rotor F1 unit-ADP + P = ATP Shaft- connects F0 and F1 Stator- stabilize As H+ flows into F0, the shaft and F1 spin, this action catalyzes the phosphoralation of ADP to ATP
30
Oxidative Phosphoralation
Use of a proton gradient to manufacture ATP
31
Substrate level phosphoralation
An enzyme ctalyzes the transfer of a phosphate group from a phosphorylated substrate to ADP to make ATP
32
Theoretical Yield of cellular respiration
10 NADH- operates 3 complexes = 30 ATP 2 FADH2 - operates 2 complexes = 4 ATP 2 ATP from glycosis 2 ATP from citric acid cycle Overall 38 ATP
33
All eukaryotes and most prokaryotes use what as their final electron acceptor
O2
34
Facultative Anaerobes
organisms that can switch between aerobic and anaerobic energy production
35
What happens when O2 is not available?
Fermentation Alternative method to create ATP in absense of final electron acceptor Regenerates NAD+ -Pyruvate can accept electrons from NADH to allow glycosis to continue; pyruvate is reduced to form lactate - Yeast cells convert pyruvate to acetylaldehyde which then accepts electrons and creates ethanol and releases CO2
36
Heterotrophs depend on what for carbohydrates
autotrophs
37
Photosynthesis equation
CO2 + H20 + light energy ---- O2 + (CH2O) (1:2:1) ratio
38
Thykaloids
stacked on top of one another to create grana. Space inside is called the lumen
39
Stroma
gel surrounding grana
40
Pigments
Embedded in thyklaoid membrane. Molecules that can absorb light energy of a particular wavelength. Chlorophyll is most abundant. Pigments are proteins
41
Energy level
when the photon strikes the pigment it excites an electron so that it is raised to the next energy level Red photons excite electrons which are then boosted to the first energy state Blue photons excite electrons to the second energy state
41
When a photon strikes a molecule, what happens?
Its energy is lost as heat or absorbed by electrons of the molecule
42
Antenna Complex
Hundreds of pigment molecules and proteins are organized into one
43
Resonance Energy Transfer
Once an electron is excited in one pigment, the energy is passed to a nearby pigment again and again. This energy is then directed to the reaction center
44
Last step in converting light energy into chemical energy
The excited electron within the pigment in the reaction center is transferred to an electron acceptor. The acceptor is reduced
45
Enhancement effect
Plants use 2 photosystems. The overall energy is greater than the sum of both
46
Photosystem 2 explanation
Electron acceptor is pheophytin which quickly donates the electron to plastoquinone(PQ). Electron passes from reaction center in PS2 to PQ, then its shuttled to a cytochrome complex while picking up proton, PQ is oxidized, proton is released into lumen, this electron transport chain creates an electrochemical gradient Protons flow through ATP synthase(back into stroma) which links ADP to Pi. This is called photophosphoralation. ATP remains in chloroplasts to manufacture carbohydrates. Enzymes within PS2 can split water.
47
Photosystem 1 explanation
Pigments in the antenna complex absorb energy from photons and pass the energy to a reaction center. Chlorophyll pigments in the reaction center are oxidized and electrons are shuttled through a series of carriers that lead to ferrodoxin and then the enzyme NADP+ reductase which transfers 2 electrons and a proton to NADP+ to form NADPH
48
Z scheme
Plastocyanin(PC) links PS2 to PS1. electrons originally from water are used by PS2 to generate a proton motive force and the production of ATP. The elctrons are passed to PS1 to produce NADPH which will then become an electron donor in th calvin cycle to make carbs.
49
Calvin cycle
ATP and NADPH produces in the light reactions are used to produce carbs from CO2. Light is not required. Occurs on stroma. 3 phases Fixation phase- CO2 reacts with RuBP a 5-C molecule. The 6-C that is formed by very unstable and immediately splits to form 2 molecules of 3PGA 1 turn fixes 1 CO2. 3 turns are required to producea carb and regenerate RuBP. Explained in 3 turns. Rubisco is the enzyme that catalyzes this reaction. Reduction phase- 3PGA is phosphoralated by ATP and reduced by electrons from NADPH to form G3P. 6 molecules G3P are created but only one for carb buiding. Other 5 are used for RuBP regeneration. (6)PGA + 6ATP + 6NADPH --- (6) G3P Regeneration phase 5 G3P and 3 ATP regenerate 3 molecules of RuBP 6 turns of calvin cycle to create make glucose
50
Mitosis results in what
2 daughter cells
51
Chromosomes
made of DNA and proteins. different species have different numbers of chromosomes Humans have 23 pairs(46 total); 23 are inheritied from each parent
52
Homologous chromosomes
Pairs of chromosomes. (same)
53
Karyotype
shows the contents of nucleus; chromosomes arranged from largest to smallest
54
Chromatin
Uncoiled DNA and associated proteins; it is long, thin, and not visible during most of the cell cycle
55
Somatic cells
Diploid. 2n
56
Gametes
Hapoid. 1n. Sperm and egg
57
Sister chromatids
After DNA replication, the 2 identical copies of the chromosome
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Centromere
holds together sister chromatids using cohesion proteins
59
Kinetochore proteins
site of spindle fiber attachment on either side of each sister chromatid
60
Interphase Parts
G1, S, G2
61
G1 phase
First gap phase Where a cell spends most of its life Normal cell activities are performed, such as growth and protein synthesis
62
S phase
Synthesis phase Another pair of centrioles is manufactured DNA replication
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G2
Second gap phase Short phase prior to actual division of DNA Enzymes needed for division are manufactured Success of DNA replication is assessed and errors are corrected
64
M Phases and meaning
Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Cytokinesis Cell division in which an exact replicate of cell is produced. Purpose is growth, development, and repair of damaged tissue
65
Prophase
Chromatin condenses; chromosomes become visible Nuclear envelope breaks down Sprindle apparatus forms Pairs of centrioles migrate to opposite ends of the cell Some spindle fibers elongate, pushing centrioles apart(polar microtubules) Kinetochores' microtubules begin to attach to the kinetochore protein present on each centromere. This guides the chromosome to the middle of the cell
66
Metaphase
Chromosomes are present at the equator(metaphase plate) Spindle apparatus is fully formed Kinetochore microtubules extend from each pole and are attached to the kinetochore protein Polar microtubules fully formed, reaching across the cell Shorter astral microtubules extend from the MTOC and anchor the spindle poles to the plasma membrane
67
Anaphase
Centromeres break apart Each chromatid(now a daughter chromosome) is pulled to opposite poles as kinetochore microtubules disassemble Polar microtubules push opposite poles to apart to elongate the cell
68
Telophase
Chromosomes reach opposite poles Smooth and rough ER manufactures 2 new nuclear enevelopes Chromosomes uncoil into chromatin Nucleoli appear, signaling the production of RNA to assist with protein synthesis
69
Spindle Apparatus
Consists of microtubules guides chromosome movement Pulls apart sister chromatids
70
CytoKinesis
Division of the cytoplasm Animals create cleavage furrow as contractile proteins interact with cytoskeletal components Plants have a cell plate that forms as vesicles from the Golgi deliver materials to form new cell wall
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Cells which never divide are said to be in
G0
72
Cell cycle checkpoints
G1: growth sufficiency, regulatory factors, and DNA undamaged G2: Successful chromosome replication, DNA undamaged M Phase: account for chromosomes that are attached to spindle fibers
73
Metastasis
Rapidly dividing cells create tumors and can travel to other locations in the body
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