1
Q
Osmocomformer
A
do not attempt to regulate the internal concentration of solutes and water. Same as surroundings
2
Q
Osmoregulator
A
do have set points for fluid levels and solute concentrations. Regulation for homeostasis.
3
Q
Marine fish live in, get rid of, and retain
A
salt water
live in hyperosmotic environment
excrete excess electrolytes
retain water
4
Q
Freshwater fish live in, excrete, and retain
A
streams/lakes
hypoosmotic environment
excrete excess water
retain electrolytes
5
Q
terrestrial insect water conservation
A
must minimize water loss and regulate fluid and electrolyte levels
Minimize water loss in their exoskeleton
Opening to tracheal system is regulated by muscles at spiracles
6
Q
3 components of exoskeleton in terrestrial insects
A
chitin(N- containing polysaccharide)
protein
wax
7
Q
Regulation of fluid and electrolyte levels in terrestrial insects
A
Malpighian tubules have large surface area, in contact with hemolymph and hind gut
Forms filtrate that flows into hind gut to be excreted
Epithelial cells actively transport K+ out of hemolymph and into filtrate
Water follows
Electrolytes and waste diffuse into tubule
Modification occurs to filtrate depening upon level of hydration
If under osomotic stress, electrolytes are reabsorbed into hemolymph through reabsorption
8
Q
Kidney
A
filter blood, regulate pH, remove waste(toxins/urea), hormone production, electrolyte levels, hydration status
9
Q
Ureters
A
2
carry urine to bladder
10
Q
Urethra
A
allows urine to exit body
11
Q
Bladder
A
stores urine
12
Q
Kidney hillus
A
concave region; blood vessels enter and exit; ureter drains the kidney
13
Q
kidney cortex
A
outer portion
14
Q
kidney medulla
A
inner portion
15
Q
nephron
A
small functional unit of kidney
16
Q
Glomerulus
A
capillar network under pressure. surrounded by bowmans capsule
17
Q
Bowmans capsule
A
receives filtrate. surrounded glomerulus
18
Q
List the renal tubules
A
Promixal convoluted tubule(PCT)
Loop of henle(LOH)
-descending limb/ascending limb
-thin/thick portion
Distal convoluted tubule(DCT)
Collecting duct(CD)
19
Q
Collecting duct function
A
receives filtrate from many DCTs
filtrate from many CDs will eventually empty into ureter
20
Q
Periubular capillaries
A
surround the entire renal tubule
21
Q
Vasa recta
A
blood vessels closely associated with the loop of henle
22
Q
Filtration process
A
fluids and solutes leave glomerulus and enter bowmans capsule to become filtrate
passes through filtration membrane
23
Q
Cells in filtration membrane
A
Endothelial and podocytes
24
Q
Enndothelial cells
A
have fenestrations(windows)
allows solutes through
blood vessel
25
Podocytes
cells of bowmans capsule the wrap around endothelial cells
spaces between called filtration slits
small molecules such as water, glucose, amino acids, vitamins, urea, and ions can pass through
26
Reabsorption
solutes leave filtrate and enter the peritubular capillaries; most occurs in PCT
establishes gradient
coupled transport using Na+
modifies filtrate
27
Secretion
solutes leave the peritubular capillaries and enter the filtrate
excrete
active transport
modifies filtrate
28
What determines dilute vs concentrated urine?
ADH
29
What part of the nephron is not isotonic and what is it?
filtrate is hypotonic in ascending limb of the LOH and DCT
30
range of mOsm in urine
65 dilute to 1200 concentrated
31
Formation of concentrated urine
during exercise or dehydration
establishment of osmotic gradient
-counter current flow
-different absorption properties of descending/ascending limbs
Secretion of ADH
secretion of aldosterone
-promotes Na/K pump. water follows Na
32
Gas exchange in small organisms using body surface
simplest
must be small organism
surface must be kept moist
33
Gas exchange in gills
special structures the project outward into water used for gas exchange
can be internal or external and must move water continuously over them
Ventilation
-must open/close mouth and operculum(gill cover) to create pumping action
-ram ventilation
organized into gill filaments and gill lamellae(surface area)
efficient due to counter current flow
34
Ram ventilation
continuously swim to allow constant flow of water
prevalent in fish
35
Counter current flow
blood flows in opposite direction of water
36
Insect gas exchage
Tracheal systems
contraction of surrounding flight muscles helps to move air in and out of system
spiracles open and close
37
Tracheal systems
complex network of tubes that allow for direct diffusion of sir with tissues
38
Gas exchange anatomy in lungs
nose-pharynx(throat)-larnyx(voicebox)-trachea-bronchi-bronchioles-alveoli(site of gas exchange)
39
What muscles create airflow in lungs?
diaphragm and external intercostals(ribs_
40
Insipiration
vacuum created, draws air inward
41
Exhalation
passive process; relaxtion of breathing muscles
42
Bird lungs
unidirectional airflow- more efficient
gas exchange occurs even during exhalation
43
Blood is important for
transportation
protection
regulation
44
Transportation in blood
nutrients, hormones, gases, and wastes are al transported through blood
45
How is blood protective?
contains white blood cells(WBCs) that provide protection against foreign invaders. also contains platelets the aloow for clotting to occur
46
regulation of blood
pH 7.35-7.45
osmolarity of tissues
temperature regulation
47
Composition of blood
made up of plasma and formed elements that are suspended within the plasma.
average adult has 4-6L of blood
48
Plasma
fluid part of blood. about 55% of blood volume
made up mostly of water
water contains solutes like ions, nutrients, wastes, hormones, gases
Proteins are in plasma including albumin, globulins, clotting factrs, serum
49
Albumin
most numerous protein in plasma
thickens the blood
50
Globulins
antibodies that attach to antigens of foreign microbes
51
Serum
pasma excluding clotting proteins
52
formed elements
cells and cell fragments suspended in plasma.
about 45% of blood volume
53
What makes all cells in blood?
red bone marrow in sternum ribs and coxal bones
Some WBCs migrate to other lymphatic tissue
54
Erythrocytes
Red blood cells(RBCs)
largest percent of formed elements
biconcave disc
Anucleated- survive only 4 months
lack organelles
transport O2, CO2, and H+
Erthropoiesis
55
Oxygen and Carbon dioxide bind to _____
hemoglobin(Hb)
iron containing protein that gives blood its red color
56
Erythropoiesis
formation of RBCs in bone marrow
Hypoxia/hypoxemia---kidney----EPO(erythropoieten)--- red bone marrow
57
Leukocytes
white blood cells(WBCs)
defend the body against invading microorganisms
have a nucleus
live for a few days to several months
can leave blood vessels and crawl through surrounding tissues
58
Platelets
small cell fragments that pinched off of a larger cell called a megakaryocyte
no nucleus
5-9 day lifespan
form a clot to plug a hole within a vessel wall to stop bleeding
59
Open circulatory systems
most invertebrates
hemolymph not in vessels
comes into direct contact with tissues
low pressure
cannot direct flow of hemolymph to tissues in need
little regulation
60
closed circultory systems
all vertebrates
blood contained in blood vessels
higher pressure
blood can be directed to tissues in need
more regulation than open circulatory
61
order of blood flow leaving the heart
left ventricle--arteries--arterioles--metarterioles--capillaries--venules--veins--right atrium
62
Arteries
have thick layer of smooth muscle
-increased stim. from SNS= vasoconstriction
-decreased stim. from SNS= vasodilation
push blood away from heart
very elastic
-exhibit compliance, expecially aorta, subclavian, etc
-helps keep blood moving as they recoil
63
Arterioles
smooth muscle in the wall of the vessel in important for regulating blood flow into the capillaries
influences blood pressure
64
Capillaries
exchange of gases and nutrients between the blood and tissues occurs
endothelium only one cell thick
Precapillary sphincters= ring of smooth muscle
-gate before capillary bed
-open/closes to regulate blood flow
65
Venules
a collection of capillaries flowing into one another
carry blood towards heart
66
Veins
not as elastic as arteries
thinner walls than arteries
Larger lumen the arteries
many have valves to assist blood flow back into heart
67
Location of heart
between lungs in the lower portion of the mediastinum(cavity between lungs)
2/3 on the left side, 1/3 on right
size of fist
68
What are the 4 chambers in the heart?
Atria(2) and Vnetricles(2)
69
Atria
blood enters atria from veins
thinner less muscular walls than ventricles
2
70
Ventricles
pumps blood into arteries
very muscular(especially left ventricle)
2
71
Systole
contraction; pumping action
72
Diastole
relaxation; filling phase
73
Atrioventricular(AV) valves
bicuspid valves- left
tricuspid valve- right
prevent blood from flowing back into atria during ventricular systole
open/close together
74
Semilunar(SL) valves
pulmonary semilunar valve- right
aortic semilunar valve- left
prevent backflow into ventricles after ventricular systole
75
Why does the heart make noise?
valves opening and closing
76
Left and right sides of the heart act as 2 ____ pumps and peform ___ functions
seperate, different
77
Pulmonary circulation
blood vessels carry oxygen-poor blood to the lungs to become oxygenated and more vessels that return the oxygen-rich blood to heart
78
Systemic circulation
blood vessles that supply blood to all other areas of the body with the exception of the myocardium
79
Coronary circulation definition
blood vessles that supply the myocardium with nutrients and oxygen and those that remove waste
80
Coronary circulation process
aorta first branches into right and left coronary arteries that supply the heart with oxygen-rich blood
cardiac veins drain blood from the walls of the heart into the coronary sinus which empties into the right atrium
can be a blockage of the coronary arteries
81
Myocardial infarction
blockage of the coronary arteries (an embolus or thrombus)
coronary bypass surgey may be needed
angina pectoris
82
Angina pectoris
severe chest pain due to reduced blood flow to the heart(ischemia)
inadequate blood flow activate nociceptors
83
ist oxygen-poor arteries
LPA, RPA
84
Oxygen rich vein
PV
85
What feature of the heart allows the muscle cells of the atria and the ventricles to contract in a coordinated manner?
the built-in ability to rhythmically contract and beat on its own
86
Sinoartial node (SA node)
found in wall of right atrium
spontaneously depolarizes (permeable to Na+)
establishes baseline for heart rate
pacemaker of heart
0.8 seconds fire AP
sontraction follows AP
86
Conduction system of the heart
SA nose--Atrioventricular node (AV node)-- AV bundle(bundle of His)--Purkinje fibers--cardiac cells
87
Intercalated discs
join cardiac muscle cells of the heart to spread the flow of electrical current that immediately precedes contraction (gap junctions)
88
Electrocardiogram(ECG)
recording of the electrical current spreading throughout the heart. The current can be detected by placing electrodes on the surface of the skin
89
P-wave
Atrial depolarization
90
QRS complex
ventricular depolarization
atrial repolarization
91
T wave
ventricular repolarization
92
Cardiac cycle
systole and diastole of both the atria and ventricles
Stroke volume(SV)
93
Stroke volume
amount of blood ejected upon ventricular systole. Average is 70ml
94
Cardiac output
volume of blood ejected from the left ventricle each minute
CO=SV x HR
5.25L= 70mL x 75BPM
Average person 5-6L of blood; all is circulated through body in one minute
HR
95
Heart rate can be influenced by...
ANS(autonomic nervous system)
-sympathetic-fight/flight high HR
-parasympathetic-rest/digest low HR
Endocrine- T3/T4, NE
96
Blood pressure
hydrostatic pressure exerted by blood on the vessel walls. Measured as systolic BP over diastolic BP (120/80). Pressure is highest in arteries that first leave the heart.
Pressure gradually decreases as blood flows through the systemic circulation. Pressure is lowest in the venae cava
97
Blood pressure is influenced by...
Cardiac output
Vascular resistance(opposition to blood flow)
98
What happens to BP when vascular resistance increases?
increases
99
Resistance increases when...
blood volume increases
blood viscosity increases
vasoconstriction
vessel distensibility decreases
vessel length increases
100
Baroreceptor reflex
baroreceptors are sensitive to the amount of pressure on a vessel wall
activated by stretch
located in the carotid sinus and arch of the aorta
relay impulses to the cardiovascular center(CVC) in the medulla of the brain stem
The greater the degree of stretch, the more impulses relayed to the CVC
101
If BP drops, ___ drops, and ____ impules are sent to CVC
stretch, fewer
Bio Foundations
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