final Flashcards

Question

Infant temperament + Big Five of personality (Neuroticism Openness Conscientousness Extraversion): Negative reactivity predicts __ Orienting regulation predicts __ Effortful control predicts __ Surgency predicts __

Answer 1

Neuroticism (vulnerability to quickly experiencing unpleasant emotions such as anxiety, anger, and depression) Openness to experience Conscientousness (organization + self-discipline) Extraversion

Answer 2

Infants high in negative reactivity (high on fearful distress and distress to limitations, low on soothability) Associated with anxiety, depression, social withdrawal later in childhood and adolescence

Answer 3

EVOCATIVE EFFECTS - Gene-environment association in which a child’s inherited characteristics evoke strong responses from others that strengthen/reinforce the child’s characteristics - Evokes certain reactions in people - i.e., difficult baby → frustrated parent - i.e., positive reactivity/affect/surgency → positive/sensitive parenting

Answer 4

The extent to which a person’s temperament matches the requirements, expectations, and opportunities of the environment Development is optimized when a parent’s child-rearing practices are sensitively adapted to the child’s temperament - Supportive caregiving supports infant’s skills at emotion regulation - Harsh planning can lead to heightened negative reactivity in infants E.g. baby high in negative reactivity and parent knows they cry around strangers– in a family reunion where the baby will see many strangers, the parent takes on the second approach in adapting parenting style to fit the baby’s temperament (e.g. keeping baby close by while still meeting new people) (not ignoring the baby’s signals of what they need from the parent to feel comfortable in the environment)

Answer 5

by observing how caregivers express emotions in different situations parents’ expressions of happiness, surprise, and interest related to children’s positive expressiveness from infancy through adolescence

Answer 6

match happy emotions in faces and voices at 9 months of age

Answer 7

DISTRESS TOLERANCE - the ability to persist when faced with negative emotions and cope with everyday stressors ... develop positive relationships with their children

Answer 8

mothers interact naturally with their infants for 3 minutes, followed by a 3-minute segment in which they keep their faces unresponsive and still ... typically, infants become upset by their mother’s still face, and engage in strategies such as looking away to alleviate their distress during re-engagement period: - Infants who are able to calm down and regulate their emotions are thought to be securely attached to their caregivers - Infants whose mothers report symptoms of depression have difficulties regulating their emotions during the still-face experiment and are unable to calm down after high level of distress after

Answer 9

when caregiver reflects back the emotions of their infants - e.g., smiling in response to a baby’s smile or exaggerating a frown when infants are upset during still-face experiment: - mothers with high mirroring during interactions = baby attempts to re-engage their mom by vocalizing and bidding for attention - mothers with low mirroring = none of that

Answer 10

the immediate, reciprocal ways that caregivers respond to infant behaviors and emotions e.g., when caregivers alternate their looks, smiles, and vocalizations with those of their infants, especially while expressing emotional warmth fosters infants’ emotion regulation months and even years later

Answer 11

yes! Mothers with frequent mobile device use = - infants with less positive affect during initial phase of the still-face procedure - showed less recovery at reunion than were infants of low users

Answer 12

Cultures shapes expectations about infant behaviours and emotions - E.g. in North American culture, it’s more valuable for baby to be smiling and happy and laughing, where in other cultures it’’s more the norm babies to be calm Fit of culture and infant temperament - Infants with temperaments that fit with cultural values and practices show better adjustment than infants without such fit

Answer 13

Special affective relationship between infant and caregiver characterized by mutual affection and desire to maintain proximity

Answer 14

relationship construct ; individual trait - Focuses on features of the relationship, not individual charactaeristic of the baby - proof: infants have different attachments with different caregivers

Answer 15

infant survival - Attachment is biologically-based and evolutionarily important for infants survival

Answer 16

The organization of infant’s behaviour around their caregiver - Measures quality of infants attachment with caregiver

Answer 17

connection to caregivers (attachment)

Answer 18

All species are born with innate/built-in behaviours that promote attachment relationships & contribute to the infant's survival over the 1st year of life, attachment relationships develop from parent-infant interactions - doesn’t need to happen immediately IMPRINING - genetic predisposition in some newborn mammals that caused them to follow their mothers everywhere, thereby ensuring proximity to food and protection

Answer 19

Does feeding or contact comfort drive the development of attachment? Infant monkeys raised without a caregiver/socially isolated developed odd/deviant behaviours 2 "surrogate" mothers; wire monkey (fed them) vs cloth monkey (provided warmth and contact comfort): - Formed an emotional attachment with cloth mother (displayed anxiety when cloth monkey was removed) - Only went to wire mother for food - Showed that it cannot be food that drives the attachment relationship with the mother (they would’ve sought the wire mother when they were distressed and when they needed a secure base)

Answer 20

Infant monkeys raised without a caregiver/socially isolated developed odd/deviant behaviours

Answer 21

2 "surrogate" mothers; wire monkey (fed them) vs cloth monkey (provided warmth and contact comfort): - Formed an emotional attachment with cloth mother (displayed anxiety when cloth monkey was removed) - Only went to wire mother for food Showed that it cannot be food that drives the attachment relationship with the mother, but rather the proximity and close bodily contact - they would’ve sought the wire mother when they were distressed and when they needed a secure base

Answer 22

infants are primarily motivated to satisfy their biological needs—e.g., thirst, hunger When infants are fed, their needs are met, they feel pleasure, and the biological drive is reduced They form attachment to the person who has reduced their biological drive and has increased their pleasure

Answer 23

Food is primary reinforcer Mother becomes secondary reinforcer - Mother becomes associated with the food ... food is a driving source that provokes attachment between child and primary caregiver (and for Freud's)

Answer 24

how infants resolve the psychological conflict of basic TRUST VS MISTRUST depends on their connection to caregivers e.g., Infants with positive parental relationships later develop trust in people, and infants who do not experience affection may begin to mistrust others and face behavioural challenges

Answer 25

Stranger anxiety Separation anxiety Greeting reactions Secure-base behaviours

Answer 26

Negative reactions of infants to an unfamiliar person Emerged around 7-9 months, peaks between 8-10 months Slowly diminishes over time (almost completely or completely) E.g. baby cries when baby sits on Santa’s lap

Answer 27

Negative reactions of infants when the caregiver temporarily leaves Emerges around 7-9 months, peaks around 13 months Observed across different cultures, but the MAGNITUDE of the response differs - Chinese children– more distress than Europen children - Different percentages of Chinese and Europan American children at different ages displaying fretting or crying at the departure of the mother (Chinese children have higher separation anxiety)

Answer 28

Reactions from the infant when the caregiver returns Can be positive, angry, etc. Says a lot about the attachment

Answer 29

Infant uses the caregiver as a “home base” for exploration Child goes back to parent

Answer 30

universal ; biological Quality of attachment relationship varies across children, and depends on quality of care the child receives healthy development

Answer 31

assesses attachment behaviour in 1-2 year olds by stimulating caregiver-infant interactions in everyday life

Answer 32

(1) Introduction of the infant and caregiver to the unfamiliar room (2) Infant and caregiver are left alone in the room (tests infant’s secure-base behaviours) (3) Stranger enters the room (tests infants stranger anxiety) (4) Caregiver leaves the infant with the stranger (tests infant’s separation response) (5) Caregiver re-enters the room and the stranger departs (tests infant’s greeting reactions) (6) Caregiver leaves infant alone in the room again (7) Stranger enters the room again (8) Caregiver enters the room again

Answer 33

greeting reaction ; labeling the infant-parent attachment

Answer 34

Secure Insecure-resistant Insecure-avoidant Disorganized

Answer 35

Majority of babies Infant explores while mother is present (mother is secure base) Upset when mother leaves Greets mother warmly upon her return, seeks her comfort Friendly to stranger when mother present

Answer 36

Small % of babies Infant stays close to mother; explored very little Very upset when she leaves (overt signs of distress) Mixed reactions when she returns (not easily comforted- mixed between seeking comfort and resisting attempts at consolation) Wary of stranger at all times (higher levels of stranger anxiety)

Answer 37

Small % of babies Explored room freely Showed very little distress when mother leaves, but still equal levels of distress (high levels of cortisol, but recovers quickly/easily comforted) Ignorant/indifferent to mother when returned May be sociable with or ignore stranger (Both insecure babies show high levels of stress)

Answer 38

Rare Express contradictory emotions and behaviour (don’t have a structured way of responding, like the others do) May act dazed or freeze or anxiety toward mother Likely associated with experience of abuse/neglect (parents are seen as emotionally unavailable/fearesome)

Answer 39

caregiving context cultural context

Answer 40

Sensitive caregiving fosters secure attachments - e.g., mothers who are quickly responsive to crying infants and hold them longer consistently - these secure babies dont cry as much or need so much physical contact when they reach 1 y.o. Opposite maternal behaviour of avoidant and resistant children - unresponsive and spend little time holding them conclusion: be responsive consistently during their first few months

Answer 41

involves 6-month-old babies at risk for insecure attachment parents with Sensitivity training vs no training Attachment at 9 months of age results: - More babies in sensitivity condition were securely attached than babies in control condition - Differences in attachment remained when the children were 18 months, 24 months, and 3.5 years old

Answer 42

Infants around the world form attachments and actively attempt to remain close to their caregivers Children from different cultures show separation anxiety at similar ages and the attachment types Parents around the world have somewhat similar ideas of the goal of attachment relationships– infants should rely on parents in their time of need but still be encouraged to explore the world

Answer 43

Infants from different cultures express attachment in ways that align with the unique cultural views and practices E.g. 1: Ugandan infants displayed intense protests when separated from their mothers compared to infants in the US - Ugandan infants less used to being separated from mothers - US infants tend to accompany their caregivers outside of the home, whereas infants in Uganda tend to remain near their homes parental views of what is considered desirable or not: - E.g. 2: Compared European and Puerto Rican parents - Puerto Rican parents ranked obedience, higher mood, and closeness to mother as higher value, - European parents ranked self-confidence, independence, as higher value

Answer 44

Single-parent household Multiple-caregiver household - Form attachment to single person first (tends to be primary caregiver) - Some studies showed that kids of all ages showed more father-preference because they engage more in play with them than mothers Communal caregiving - Children are raised by professional caregivers in communal environments - Usually develop first primary secure attachments to professional caregivers, and secondary attachments to their parents (sometimes vice versa) "Satellite babies" - immigrants' children who are temporarily sent back to their home country by their parents, and then reunited with them afterward - this prolonged infant-parent separation can cause developmental consequences (depression, mental health issues)

Answer 45

2-7 y.o. Children are now capable of: Mental representation & Internalization of thought - reached at end of sensorimotor stage - A word or object can represent something else - Leads to an explosions of new behaviours: language, symbolic play, deferred imitation, and object permeance

Answer 46

logical mental operations - mental actions that combine, separate, and transform information logically

Answer 47

1) Symbolic understanding 2) Pretend/fantasy/sociodramatic play

Answer 48

Understanding that things can stand for other things (i.e., mental representation) - E.g. the word ‘dog’ represents the furry animal; a banana can stand for a phone ; tea party (pretend play) still have not reached DUAL REPRESENTATION - Understanding an object may simultaneously be itself and a symbol for another thing - e.g., a toy car is something to play with but also represents a life-size car - 2-2.5 y.o have difficulty with this but 3yo can pass this task - E.g., might think the banana really functions as a phone ... It takes time to properly develop symbolic understanding and dual representation

Answer 49

Had a room set up in a certain way, then made a scale miniature model of it To investigate dual representation, she would hide a doll under a pillow in the scale model, which was physically identical to the room it was representing Then, she would take the child into the big room … do kids understand that the scale model was a representation of the room? will they find the toy? look in the same place the toy was hidden in the model? - 2.5 yo mostly couldn't find it - 3 yo could find it … Maybe they failed the test because they couldn't hold it in their memory for long enough? Lack of understanding of the instructions? they seem to understand it for the small scale model Developmental psychologists have to do a lot of ruling out since children are developing so quickly

Answer 50

they reversed it - hid snoopy in big room and told child to leave the room DeLoache pretended to use a magical shrinking machine to “shrink” the large room to a smaller size now the 2 y.o. could find the toy in the "shrunken" room/model … only thing that differed was the story researcher thought it was because the child thought it really was the same room just shrunk, where as in the Scale Model Study, they knew it was two different things (didn't need to use dual representation)

Answer 51

Children act out imaginary stories related to life experiences and that may involve others in created play scenarios - symbolic understanding and mental representation allow for pretend play starts at 2-3 yo but it increases/ develops as the child develops 6 yo develop more complex roles and stick to their roles better

Answer 52

Completely imaginary or physical representation (doll) What do they do for children’s social, emotional, and cognitive development? … there was a lot of concern about this but its been proven to be associated with differences in imagination! - better imagination and creativity & offer some of the same benefits that real life friends do

Answer 53

1) Egocentrism 2) Animisic thinking 3) Conservation 4) Appearance-Reality Distinction

Answer 54

The tendency of children to believe that other people view the world from their perspective - An inability to consider another person’s perspective - E.g. when playing Hide and Go Seek, they just cover their face because if they can’t see you, you can’t see them perspective taking improves with age but even adolescents and adults aren't always great with this – relates to theory of mind Piaget’s Three Mountain Task + Hide and seek task

Answer 55

hide and seek - child playing hide and seek just closes their eyes and hopes you can't see them - this finding has been replicated over and over again but if replicated with small differences, a room in their own house that they're familiar with then they do better - also task hiding a doll form a police officer faced away from them = success - also 2-5 yo have success imagining how a familair room in front of them would look from different positions = success Piaget may have overstated children’s egocentrism by relying on a task that was unfamiliar to children ... Even children who had failed the three mountains task succeeded when things were familiar

Answer 56

child is on one end of table, doll is at another - it looks different form different perspectives - let child walk all around the table - sat down and ask what do you see (from this perspective) - "can you describe what the doll sees?" - child said the doll saw the same thing that they did - Piaget said this demonstrated an inability to step into someone else's shoes

Answer 57

7-10 ; difficulties in manipulating multiple representations in their minds

Answer 58

the attribution of human qualities to inanimate entities Piaget thought children attribute human qualities to inanimate entities and have difficulty distinguishing between the two (e.g. doll has feelings) … But recent work challenges this idea (they do have some understanding) When presented with new animate objects, children ask questions about what it does itself - ‘what does it do?’ , “what sounds does it make?” When presented with new inanimate objects, they focus on its function - ‘what do I do with it?’, “how do I work it?" They do engage in a lot of pretend play, but that doesn’t mean they don’t understand the difference

Answer 59

nature makes animate things, and humans make inanimate things the two have different insides (mechanical vs human insides) animate objects move themselves and inanimate objects move because of human action or human-built machines

Answer 60

belief that entities have an Underlying essence that determines what the thing might do/be - not surface-level - guides their future expectations - e.g., underlying essence of "all bees" is that they sting- new assumption that all bees sting but mosquitos don't Children make assumptions about something based on its category label/essence - as opposed to just their physical features Can underlie the stereotypes of difference types of people - e.g. the child hear “girls are bad at math,” so now everytime they meet a boy and a girl, they assume that the girl is bad at math and the boy is good at math

Answer 61

pre-schoolers shown picture of leaf, bug, and bug (looked more like a leaf than bug) the objects category label ; physical features e.g., because its labelled as 'bug', they can assume it can move on its own, that its 'creepy', etc. based on knowledge of other bugs

Answer 62

Can children understand that number, mass, or volume of something remains the same even if it looks different? Young children fail these liquid, number, and mass conservation tasks (where the entities are changed to look different but remain the same in mass or number) because of centration and reversibility

Answer 63

CENTRATION - Tendency to focus on a single, perceptually salient feature of something and ignore others - Adults are able to focus on both the width and height of an object - Children usually fail in the same way (they all focus on height rather than width/diameter) - e.g., focusing only on the length of the clay rather than width REVERSIBILITY - Unable to mentally “undo” an action - e.g., don't see that the material could be returned to its original state (water back into beaker)

Answer 64

Children’s ability to differentiate between appearance and reality children younger than 5–6 years of age focus on the appearance of objects, rather than the reality of those objects study of distinguishing between Maynard cat and the cat that now looks like has a dog face - 3-year-olds believed Maynard is now a vicious dog ; 6-year-olds recognized its still a cat Another study; identify distinction bet. objects that have one appearance but are actually something different - kids younger than 3 can do this NONVERBAL task (they point to the right object) - e.g., point to sponge that ressembled rock when asked what soaks up water - e.g. pen that looks the shape of a banana, sponge that looks like the shape of a rock

Answer 65

7-11 yo Young children pass conservation tasks and have little difficulty with appearance-reality distinction - Hierarchical classification - Seriation - Causal understanding - Better perspective-taking and spatial reasoning - Can draw and read maps - Inductive reasoning, not deductive reasoning

Answer 66

The ability to take a set of objects that have various different features and organize them in consistent ways into categories/a hierarchy E.g. young kids have collection of Pokemon cards that they organize in various names (e.g. by name, sophistication, etc.) - Putting things in order based on features (e.g. height, number, amount, etc.) E.g. putting blocks in order based on height

Answer 67

piaget tested childrens ability to determine if there was more numbers of objects in a whole set or more of a subset in that set asked children whether there were more chips (the whole set) or more blue chips (a subset) preoperational children erroneously concluded there were more blue chips

Answer 68

Transitive inference - Inference based on given information E.g. “Emily is taller than Bob, Bob is taller than Jeff, so is Emily taller than Jeff?” – inferring that yes, Emily is taller than Jeff

Answer 69

perspective-taking ; egocentrism ; spatial reasoning

Answer 70

yes Rotate maps, trace a route, instructions for how to get from one place to another Concept of scale - things have a scale/size, and there are real-world represent of that scale, like a map

Answer 71

YES Ability to draw on specific observations, facts, and knowledge to draw logical conclusions - using specific observations to get to general conclusion E.g. 20 questions (asking questions to get to a thing) e.g., seeing many white swans, so assuming swans are white

Answer 72

NO Ability of abstract/hypothetical thinking using hypotheses to test ideas and draw specific conclusions - general ideas to specific conclusions Children cannot do this in concrete operational stage E.g. Pendulum problem (testing what objects can swing on different lengths of string) E.g. “would humans on Mars need to drink water, eat plants, etc.?” E.g “What would’ve happened if Germany had won World War II?”

Answer 73

Study the cognitive skills that allow children to attend to and learn new information 1) Executive functions - Inhibitory control - Cognitive flexibility - Working memory 2) Memory - Episodic memory - Semantic memory

Answer 74

The collection of skills involved in controlling and coordinating attention, memory and other behaviours involved in goal-directed actions Keep attention on one thing and ignore other stuff

Answer 75

1) Inhibitory control 2) Cognitive flexibility 3) Working memory

Answer 76

Children’s ability to respond appropriately to a stimulus while inhibiting an alternative, dominant response Inhibits automatic responses

Answer 77

STROOP TASK - inhibiting automatic dominant response to read the word and actually report the colour of the word rather than the word itself; congress vs incongress stimulus DAY-NIGHT TASK - they have to say “day” to a picture of a moon, and “night” to a picture of a sun GO-NO-GO TASK - press a button every time you see a car- the ‘go stimulus’, but not a boat– the ‘no-go-stimulus’ - cars show up 80% of the time, and they have to inhibit automatic response to hit the button when a boat finally shows up For all inhibitory control tasks, there’s a big improvement between performance of 3 year olds and performance of 5 year olds

Answer 78

Children’s ability to shift between concepts or rules, or to think about multiple concepts simultaneously

Answer 79

DIMENSIONAL CARD-SORT TASK - cards with rabbits and flowers - First they’re asked to sort based on colour, then there’s a rule change and they’re asked to sort based on object - 3-year-olds are really bad at adjusting to this rule change/cognitive switching, and in 5 year-olds it’s much better - shift from a color-based-rule to an object-based-rule - Cognitive flexibility continues to improve into adulthood - Prefrontal cortex is response for this executive function

Answer 80

Children’s ability to maintain and manipulate information in the mind over a short period of time Important for concentration, focus, and following instructions Children struggle to keep things in their working memory for a long period of time Lays the foundation for kids to be able to function effectively in classrooms working memory span + processing speed

Answer 81

The number of bits of information that a person can hold in active memory and manipulate at a time 4-5-year-olds can usually keep about 4 things in memory adults can keep 7 items in working memory

Answer 82

How quickly a person can process or encode information Researchers believe that children’s working memory span is smaller than adults because their processing speed is slower (adults rehearse information over and over, whereas children do not get the chance to)

Answer 83

The 3 executive functions lead to PLANNING Children select, coordinate, and execute a sequence of actions while inhibiting other actions

Answer 84

Use a minimum number of moves to match your board to the target board Quality of planning is based on the number of moves you make 8-year-olds are as good as adults at problems that require 3 moves to get to the tagrte board, but adults are better than 8-year-olds at tasks that require more moves

Answer 85

15 years probably because the prefrontal cortex takes long to develop

Answer 86

Procedural memories Declarative memories - Semantic memories - Episodic memories - Autobiographical memory

Answer 87

“Knowing how” Persist over a long period of time Don’t have to consciously think about them E.g. riding a bike

Answer 88

“Knowing that” Memories for facts, events, and personal past experiences

Answer 89

General knowledge of the world Children’s knowledge-base expands as they store more information in long-term memory Knowledge helps memory by facilitating rehearsal and encoding of familiar material

Answer 90

E.g. child chess players were better than adults at remembering the layout of the chess board, but worse in general memory– shows that we just have more opportunity to learn things and a bigger knowledge base where we can add stuff to that knowledge base E.g. older children (6th grader) is better than younger (3rd grade) at remembering familiar word lists, but not unfamiliar word lists .. Capacity is not better over time for remembering things, but we can just add things to our existing knowledge - why we show better semantic memory for new things (we already have big semantic store of knowledge) ... Reveals the hole of knowledge growth in memory and other cognitive tasks

Answer 91

Knowledge about familiar routines E.g. knowing the sequence of events around going to a restaurant or taking the ttc BUT, a memory about a specific trip to a restaurant, however, is not semantic memory; it is episodic

Answer 92

Everyday memories about personal experiences, situations, and events E.g. remembering what you did for your 18th birthday party, your first job, etc.

Answer 93

The information and memories an individual accumulates to create a unique identity Contains both episodic and semantic components E.g. remembering you used to live in Kingston even if you don’t have any episodic memories from there

Answer 94

Episodic memory for specific details increases more than the semantic component with age - Much detail about an event from older kids compared to younger kids the 5-year-old would give much more detail than the 3-year-old (3y.o would need more support in providing detail) 7- to 8-year-olds report simply knowing that something happened (e.g. a school trip) 9- to 13-year-olds report more specific details and required fewer prompts Continues to develop through adolescence

Answer 95

The difficult adults have in remembering the first years of life On average, adults report their earliest memories to have occurred between 3 and 4 year olds

Answer 96

Freud’s theory that we suppress trauma Things that happen before 3-4-years-of-age maybe didn’t get encoded in our memories …. But shows infants can retain information for weeks/months at a time Just a decay of memories over time (memories formed earlier just decay quicker) – 8-year-olds remember things around the age of 3/4-years-old

Answer 97

The decay/degradation of memories over time ... May account for infantile amnesia and age-related improvements in episodic memory

Answer 98

A person’s awareness of what they know and how thinking works Related to cognition over all– a broad term Used all the time Varies from adult to adult E.g. how do you figure out that you’ve studied enough that you will do well on the exam– this is a metacognitive skill– knowing when you have enough knowledge E.g. knowing the most effective way to study – how different strategies work for you to help you memorize

Answer 99

Some young children are a lot worse at metacognition - they overestimate what they know and underestimate what they do not know E.g. study that tested 5 - 8-year-olds, showed 20 pictures, asked them if they will remember all 10 pictures at a later date - almost all 5 year-olds said yes they would rememer but their estimate was different from what they actually did remember - 8 year-olds showed to be more aware of their limited memory

Answer 100

Children’s understanding of the memory process Type of metacognition

Answer 101

1) Rehearsal 2) Organization/chunking 3) Elaboration

Answer 102

Relies on repeating information to aid memory Children begin to use in early grade school, increase use over time Not most effective strategy, especially for complex material (not good for studying for exams) Great for a small list of things– need to remember for a small period of time

Answer 103

organizing items into meaningful categories based on their relations to one another (i.e., “chunking”) This is more helpful than rehearsal older children use more than younger e.g., chunking the words potato tomato and starwberry into 'foods' e.g., rememebring gorcery list by remmebeirng categories of dairy meat and sweets rather than individul items

Answer 104

Preschool kids are bad at chunking overall 7-8-year-olds spontaneously start to use the chunking strategy – why we think memory improves over the course of childhood - Not only because brain is getting more efficient, but they also start to use better memory strategies which improved recall Word lists are used to study memory - One kid remembered the list by putting together the rhyming words - The other kid organized the list by conceptual categories to remember the words - This will help kdis remember– the one that categorized is the better way of organizing things

Answer 105

Creating a story (with a list of words), or detailed image to remember information e.g. child asked to remember the unrelated words “fishing rod,” “donkey,” and “dress” might imagine a donkey wearing a dress while fishing e.g., Coming up with your own examples - Even more sophisticated than the first two Children do not really use this as they lack the semantic and cognitive abilities– usually begins in early/late adolescence Continues to develop into adolescence (requires lots of effort) (time consuming and cognitively taxing)

Answer 106

By age 4, majority of children can be understood well by unfamiliar adults - Doesnt finish by age 4, just improves … 2-3-year-olds are hard to understand by strangers

Answer 107

Practice talking Greater control and coordination of speech muscles (maturation of muscles) Motivation (want to be understood by others) R sound is particularly hard to acquire until middle childhood (8 - 10-year-olds)

Answer 108

specificity ; detail by age 6, children acquire a vocabulary of up to 10,000 words After age 6, more complex words are added - e.g. leadership, collegiality - better understand synonyms - add/understand more abstract words/concepts to their vocabulary (e.g. justice - understand subtle variations in meaning (certain words can describe a scenario, but are used differently depending on the context (e.g. plunging, falling, tumbling)

Answer 109

Vocabulary expansion Hierarchical organization of words

Answer 110

Nouns are organized General level of classification → Basic level → Specific level - from broad category to subcategories - E.g. Plant (general level) → Tree (basic level) → White pine tree (specific level) Children tend to learn the basic level of a category first before they learn the general or specific level - e.g. learn dog rather than mammal or Doberman first - Due to easier conceptual understanding (easier to understand basic level vs general or specific) (all basic levels of categorization have common characteristics, e.g. trees rather than just saying plants) and exposure (adults talk to kids at the basic categorization level)

Answer 111

Morphology Use of clauses Over-regularization

Answer 112

Rules about how words are formed E.g. adding ‘s’ to make plurals

Answer 113

Combining clauses– the smallest grammatical unit/sentence that expresses a complete thought, with words like ‘and,’ ‘but,’ etc. Young kids speak in single clauses, but as they develop, they undnerstand how to put more complex clauses together E.g. “Daddy is cooking while Mommy is shoveling outside”

Answer 114

Errors as they learn grammatical rules Children initially use the correct form (“I took”), then switch to the incorrect form (“I taked”), before switching back to the correct form This switch indicates increased understanding of grammatical rules/morphology E.g. the Wug test - tests children’s understanding of grammar rules based on children’s verbal responses to pictures of invented nouns, verbs, and adjectives - whether a child says “wugs” to 2 odd creatures

Answer 115

(the social norms of language/communication) Learning the norms of language use There are many things in the adult language that kids just do not understand

Answer 116

1) Say no more or no less than required 2) Be relevant 3) Avoiding ambiguity and confusion - children’s perspective-taking; ego-centrism - e.g. not understanding what context/background information is necessary to give to the other person - e.g. talking as though the adult knows the kids in their class Understanding distinction between conversational language and academic language - over middle childhood - adolescence (develops between 3 and 5 years of age)

Answer 117

The collection of skills, knowledge, and attitudes that are early precursors to reading and writing

Answer 118

Oral language skills Code-related skills

Answer 119

Knowing words Kids oral language skills impacts their reading/writing abilities E.g. understanding narrative

Answer 120

The formalities of writing, sounding out, and reading letters and words on a page focus on the written word's structure i.e., learning conventions of print (right to left, up-down) i.e., connecting letters on a page to sounds (i.e., phonological awareness) (recognizing that letters have a sound)

Answer 121

NO Kids advanced in oral language skills may not be as advanced in code-related skills (have to catch up in kindergarten), and vice versa - E.g. being able to understand how a conversation flows and words, but not knowing how to read properly with sounds On the contrary, some kids code-related skills outpace oral language skills (not necessarily understanding what they’re reading)

Answer 122

Figuring out the meanings of words, sentences, and paragraphs - Conceptual understanding Develops a lot in high school (e.g. reading Shakespeare and understanding the concepts) I.e., Oral language skills

Answer 123

Decoding letters into sounds, mapping sounds to words, and discriminating words on a page I.e., code-related skills

Answer 124

grade 4 - grade 6

Answer 125

1) Phonics approach 2) Whole language approach

Answer 126

Focuses on inside-out ‘decoding’ skills Phonemic awareness– the ability to identify the sounds that make up words Distinguishes good from poor readers (good readers have good phonemic awareness) It is critical to teach kids code-related skills

Answer 127

Teaching children to recognize the whole word Solely focusing on the whole language approach is insufficient for teaching reading

Answer 128

2 and 3 years of age = number concepts/they understand quantity - e.g., understand and use words like ‘more than,’ ‘less than,’ bigger, etc. - Re approximate number sense (infants are sensitive to differences in quantity) 2-3 yo can COUNT, but initially they do not connect WORDS to QUANTITIES - at first they just memorize the sequences of one, two, three (without knowing its meaning)

Answer 129

yes, but the time differs - delays in other cultures

Answer 130

3.5 to 4-years Classified by one-knowers, two-knowers three-knowers vs other kids who understand numbers ‘three’ or ‘four’ ; higher number words - "that specific numbers represent specific quantities" - much like a vocabulary spurt

Answer 131

Each number in a sequence represents a specific number of elements in a set (achieved by 3.5 years of age) Explains the shift in understanding of numbers E.g. 5 means a specific quantity, not just smth that comes before 6 and after 4 with improvement in cardinality, 4-year-olds can solve simple numerical comparisons (e.g., if i ate 3 apples, and lila ate 1, who ate more?)

Answer 132

5 yo ; can count to 20 ; 1 - 10

Answer 133

The ability to understand and represent shapes, locations, and spatial relations among objects (e.g. ‘on top of,’ ‘triangle,’ ‘behind’) Shows significant development in EARLY childhood Kids who have good spatial kids have good math skills - predict good math skills later

Answer 134

Learning new strategies Concept of mathematical equality Concept of relative magnitudes

Answer 135

E.g. addition, subtraction, etc. Due to working memory (better at holding things in mind and manipulating it) Between 7-11, kids can solve basic math problems easily Kids memorize basic math facts (e.g., times tables) and use them to do more complex skills later on - Automatically "freeze up" cognitive resources

Answer 136

Quantities on the left and right sides of an “=” equation must be balanced Understanding stuff on left side of equation = stuff on the right side By about age 10, able to solve simple equations (e.g. 2+2=4), but can be developed earlier

Answer 137

Relative “distances” between numbers Kindergarten - Grade 2 = better at placing numbers between 0 and 100 Grades 2 and 4 = better at placing numbers between 0 and 1,000 Develops from early to middle childhood

Answer 138

Fear of, or apprehension about, math 20%

Answer 139

Study done across many countries world-wide indicates that there’s a negative correlation between math anxiety and math performance Math anxiety causes poor mathematicl ability, not poor mathematical ability causes math anxiety – not just a one-directional relatinship Relates to working memory (people with math anxiety demonstrate decreased working memory– a lot of working memory is taken up to deal with the math anxiety, which leaves less cognitive resources to deal with the actual math solving)

Answer 140

Initial struggle with math Parent math anxiety/negative attitudes about math Teacher math anxiety/negative attitudes about math !!! - Research shows that it’s really important that kids are taught by people who have comfort and expertise in math - In Finland, tha’s what they value in their teaching systems (very different to North American) Stereotypes about math - E.g. you either get it or you don’t … Attitude toward failure

Answer 141

Desire and willingness to attain a goal and the continuation of effort towards that goal intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

Answer 142

When a person engages in an activity because they find the activity enjoyable; they persist on the activity even without a reward Choosing to do something yourself and for personal satisfaction rather than for other people Motivation that will likely persist, even without an external reward

Answer 143

When a person engages in an activity because of external pressures; they may lose interest in the activity as a result

Answer 144

Children’s explanations for their successes and failures fixed and growth mindset

Answer 145

Success/failure is attributed to personal ability Inherent, innate ability E.g. I did so good because I just happen to be good at math

Answer 146

Success/failure is attributed to effort (seen as malleable) Effort you put into something E.g. I did so good because I studied so hard

Answer 147

Children that associate their success with innate ability (fixed mindset), they are less likely to persist in face of challenges - E.g. good at math in grade 3 because of innate ability, and then bad at math in grade 7 and say oh im just not good at it anymore and not motivated to study more

Answer 148

Study where children were given challenging tasks that they failed, and they were taught to attribute their failure to the challenging task to their (lack of) effort rather than their ability (vs success only group) Children who were taught to attribute success/failure to effort tried harder on future challenging tasks and persisted longer as opposed to the other group

Answer 149

Process praise Person praise

Answer 150

Focused on children’s efforts Has nothing to do with the outcome E.g. “wow you did so good, you studied so hard im so proud!”

Answer 151

Focused on fixed abilities/traits E.g. “wow you did so good on the test, you’re really good at geography/you have a natural ability for it!”

Answer 152

Entity perspective on intelligence - Intelligence is innate and unchangeable Incremental perspective on intelligence - Intelligence is changeable and improves with practice over time

Answer 153

Home context: - talk - book reading - math-related activities Family SES context Schooling context: - the teachers - other factors Cultural context - language - mathematical practices

Answer 154

Amount and diversity of words that children hear - # of words heard impacts children's vocabulary size, grammatical complexity, and literacy RECAST - Child says something grammatically incorrect and parent reiterates what child says but in grammatically correct form - Helps with children’s grammatical development EXPANSION - Recast + expansion (correcting them but adding information) - e.g., a child states, “I runned fast,” and a parent remarks, “Yes, you ran very fast at the race yesterday!”

Answer 155

Books provide opportunity for children to hear words/complex grammatical structures that they wouldn’t hear otherwise PARENTAL ELABORATIONS - Parent going beyond what’s in the book (“elaborativeness”) - I.e., asking child questions during book readings are particularly central to children’s narrative skills - E.g. before turning page, asking kid “where do you think Michael will go next? What will he see next?”

Answer 156

Math games and activities foster math skills - Learning about object sizes - Board games and puzzles predict basic number skills, spatial thinking, math tasks

Answer 157

Recall “30-million word gap study” - By preschool, children from low SES households had vocabularies half the size of children from high SES homes Harmful effects of poverty accumulate over time

Answer 158

Teacher quality - Frequent, warm, and responsive interactions, encourage children to speak, and offer opportunities to elaborate on topics - Knowledgeable in content area - High expectations - Positive attitude - Provide lots of (positive) feedback - Invested in students success - Flexibly adapting instruction to meet students’ needs

Answer 159

Gave IQ tests to different classes in elementary schools, told teachers of those classes that some kids are ‘rapid bloomers’ and will show unusual gains in intelligence over the next year (kids were given this title randomly and didn’t actually show any differences among their classmates) 8 months later they test IQ’s again and those who were designated ‘rapid bloomers’ showed significant improvements in IQ scores Reflects differences in how teachers respond to ‘bloomer kids’ vs ‘non-bloomer kids’ The reverse is alos true– if teachers have low expectations for kids, kids will meet those low expectations (harmful during early childhood) Shows that if kids are unoficially labeled (e.g. “they’re gonna struggle”), it usually snowballs and they tend to improve less overtime

Answer 160

Classroom climate - Intellectual, social, emotional, and physical enviornment in which students learn - May be especially important for marginalized students Class size - Smaller class sizes promote sense of belonging

Answer 161

The skills emphasized in specific cultural contexts Cultural tools, including language Schooling experience Approaches to teaching

Answer 162

Features of language shape children’s language, literacy, and math skills E.g., Piraha language - Phonemic inventory smallest in the world (8 consonants, 3 vowels) - Few words to express time and does not contain numbers or terms for quantification E.g., Chinese language - Words for numbers “eleven”, “twelve”, “thirteen” translate to ten-one, ten-two, and ten-three - More intricate system of notation

Answer 163

Cultural practices and beliefs affect children’s development of mathematical concepts across diverse communities - E.g., Tsimane number skills were delayed relative to children from Westernized countries; but sequence of learning remains the same - E.g., Brazilian street children developed complex math skills through hands-on learning

Answer 164

A subfield of psychology that examines how people process, store, and apply information about people and social situations Theory of mind -lying & deception Social perception and evaluation -intergroup biases & stereotypes Selective trust and social learning Prosocial and antisocial behaviours

Answer 165

The study of how infants and children reason about people’s beliefs, thoughts, goals, and intentions, including their own, and how it influences their behaviour

Answer 166

The ability to attribute mental states such as knowledge, beliefs, and desires to oneself and others, and to understand that other people can have knowledge, beliefs and desires that differ from one’s own Begins to develop between 3 and 4 years of age, and is nearly fully developed at around 6 years of age

Answer 167

presented children between 3-9 yo with sketches in which Maxi placed his chocolate into a cupboard, and his mother then moved it to a different cupboard while Maxi was out of the room asked "where would Maxi look for his chocolate when he re-entered the room?" Children younger than 4–5 yo incorrectly stated that Maxi would look for it at its new location Children older than 4–5 yo understood that Maxi would look in the original location

Answer 168

Test whether a child understands that someone can hold a false belief Tests to see if child can hold 2 mental representations in their mind (older ones can) - "Where was the object in the beginning?" - "Where is the object now?" e.g., Salley-Anne task - Sally puts a ball in a basket and leaves - Anne moves the ball to a box - "Where will Sally look for her ball?" = younger child says "in the box" (new location) ... dont recognize false belief

Answer 169

E.g., pencils in a smarties box - "What did you THINK was inside the box?" = pencils - "What will your friend John think is in the box?" = pencils 3 year olds are unable to do this - would state that the other person will believe the container holds pencils - will project what they now know is in the box instead of understanding that John could have a false belief most 5 yo can - will say the other person will believe its candy (recognize false belief)

Answer 170

3-year-olds seem to only understand their own perspective of the world and cannot udnertsand others differ in views ... Like Piaget’s pre-operational theory of ego-centrism

Answer 171

1) Executive functioning 2) Theory-Theory 3) Brain development growing language/memory skills (these changes did not improve their performance)

Answer 172

ToM tasks are cognitively taxing - have to keep two mental representations at once (where the chocolate was and where it is now) while thinking of where she will look first As executive functioning improves, ToM tasks improve - studies show that typically, good performance on ToM tasks is related with good performance on cognitive functioning tasks

Answer 173

Revisions that children make to their theories about the world children actively seek out the causes and reasons for their own and other's behaviours - ‘little scientists’ – trying to understand why people act the way they do younger kids fail the ToM tasks because it goes against their “wanting = getting” idea - 3 yo might form a theory about Maxi's behaviour about wanting the chocolate- "Maxi wants the chocolate, so he will look for it in the right place" - child assumes that just because Sally wants the ball, she will get the ball, and so she looks in the correct location With age and experience, children modify their earlier-held theories - experience/learning over time that objects are not always where they were last seen & that people can hold false beliefs - younger kids just need to gain contradicting evidence that’s inconsistent with their naive theories to adjust their beliefs/theories (Piaget’s accommodation theory); evidence that people often do not find objects just because they wish to have them

Answer 174

1) Children with autism tend to struggle with ToM tasks - Biological disorders affect social-cognitive skills 2) EEG tests - More mature patterns of brain activity = more likely passing of ToM tasks - The underlying brain structures important for false belief understanding undergo significant development between 3-4 years of age (matured) - brain maturation improves areas in charge of reasoning

Answer 175

lying behaviour Developed ToM/succession of false belief tasks = developed ability to successfuly lie/deceive - Because they know that other people think differently than them, so they try to manipulate what other people think - Lying is a normal part of development

Answer 176

Temptation resistance paradigm: children left alone in a room with a music-playing toy placed behind their back. Told not to peek. Most children peeked! Younger children tended to confess, but most older children lied Some were better at lying and sticking to their lie Children who performed better on false-belief tasks were better liars (better believable liars and longer sticking to their lies)!!!!

Answer 177

Children’s success at hide and seek and ability to keep secrets Ability to come up with persuasive arguments - study in textbook describes that children who succeed at false belief reasoning tasks are better at being persuasive

Answer 178

4 yo ; white lies Enforces positive social relationships with people - E,g., telling your friend their haircut looks bomb even though it looks a little chopped <3

Answer 179

Expertise (e.g., mathematics professor vs history professor) Reliability/accuracy - if someone has previously been reliable/correct, then we’re more likely to go to them for information Consensus … traits actually related to what the person actually knows

Answer 180

Personality Group membership Appearance (gives us clues about what they MIGHT know) Familiarity … traits not related to what the person actually knows (more superficial)

Answer 181

4 - 6 yo (seek information from people who they assume to have expertise with that cultural item)

Answer 182

studies that when two teachers gave names or functions of novel objects, 3-to-5-year-olds are more likely to trust the familiar teacher over the unfamiliar one

Answer 183

One adult labelled all 4 objects correctly (e.g., ‘this is a cup’ to a cup), & the other adult labelled all 4 objects incorrectly Children judged one adult as more reliable or accurate than the other, and preferred to ask for information from the adult they viewed to be more trustworthy

Answer 184

One person knew the names of the tools but could not fix toys The other person did not know the names of tools but used the right tools to fix the toys When children wanted to know the new labels of things, they directed questions to the person who knew the names of tools When they wanted to fix broken toys, they turned to the person who had fixed the toys in the past … They are more likely to use someone’s expertise to decide who they should take information from

Answer 185

3-year-olds favored the familiar caregiver even though they were inaccurate 4- and 5-year-olds consistently favored the unfamiliar but reliable stranger

Answer 186

Cultural norms about when, where, and how to express emotions Young children mat have trouble with display rules due to poor inhibitory control Related to kids developing executive functions (specifically inhibitory control) When kids violate display rules, its because they’re developing inhibitory control skills

Answer 187

Kids do some experiment and get reward at the end (but it isn’t generally exciting for kids, e.g., bar of soap) Young kids often have trouble succeeding in this task (show that they are upset – trouble with inhibition of their real emotion and displaying a more ‘appropriate’ emotion)

Answer 188

Experiments that measure children’s abilities to resist an immediate temptation in order to receive a larger reward later

Answer 189

Children are given a marshmallow, and experimenter says ‘if u wait to eat it, ill go get another one and you can eat 2!” Shows individual differences (some ate it right away, some waited until the experimenter brought another one)

Answer 190

1) Very likely, young kids have difficulty predicting how they might feel at a future date - very focused on the present moment and cannot understand how they’ll feel in when they get that future edward 2) Kids have different coping strategies which dictate how successful they can be - e.g., distracting themselves from the marhsmellow with averting eye gaze or humming to oneself 3) Age - kids simply get better at this as they get older; maturation of cognitive executive functions 4) Experience - more experience with patience and waiting for things - e.g., difference between Japenese and North American children in waiting

Answer 191

A study where children in Japan were more able to delay gratification in the delayed gratification task whereas there was less success with the North American kids (it was observed that kids in Japan were much more used to waiting for food in the classroom) An additional study where North American vs Japenese kids were given gifts and asked to wait to open it– North American kids succeeded more than Japanese kids because North American kids have more practice/experience with waiting to open gifts during christmas, sometimes even for several weeks in comparison to Japenese children This raises interesting insight into the factors that impact kids success in inhibitory tasks– it’s not necessarily greedienss or poor inhibitory control, but because of practice with waiting for that particular object !!!

Answer 192

Highly inhibited/shy children Under-controlled children Well-regulated children

Answer 193

Have trouble regulating negative emotions, specifically fear and sadness, in novel situations

Answer 194

Score high on surgency (extraverted, outgoing, high energy/activity) Difficulty regulating frustration/anger (explosive emotions)

Answer 195

Early emotion regulation predicts later outcomes (e.g., academic skills, peer relationships, conflicts)

Answer 196

The ability to regulate attention and inhibit emotional behaviour, including in stressful situations

Answer 197

The positive socialization of children’s emotions E.g., validating children’s feelings and offering coping strategies in stressful situations

Answer 198

Being dismissive of a child’s emotions; harsh punishment and criticism Big gender difference in how emotions are socialized in boys vs girls

Answer 199

Any conversation relating to kid’s mental state (their feelings and opinions) A key way that parents socialize children about emotions Conversations about feelings and mental states help support children’s emotion understanding E.g., “oh you seem very happy/sad,” “what did you think when he did that?”

Answer 200

Kids with adoptive parents with high mental state talk showed much more improved emotion understanding than those adopted kids who received low mental state talk

Answer 201

because it’s not stressful enough 1-year-olds dont have lots of experience being separated from their caregivers / being left alone, and so its in that stress of being left alone where attachment is determined But older children are used to being separated from their caregivers (e.g., start going to school)

Answer 202

Preschool Attachment Classification System (PACS) Attachment Q-Sort

Answer 203

Children experience 4 brief episodes of separation and reunion with their caregivers - researchers rate children’s behaviours during separation periods Episodes of separation are longer (5 minutes) (more chance for attachment behaviors to emerge) Kids can be classified into the same 4 categories of attachment - secure (high-quality mother-child interactions are associated with secure attachment in 3-year-olds) - insecure avoidant - insecure ambivalent/dependent - insecure disorganized

Answer 204

Based on children’s proximity-seeking and exploration in the home or other naturalistic settings like a playground Caregivers/researchers sort cards describing child attachment-related behaviours, based on the degree to which the child matches the description Kids are given a score that RANGES from very secure, to very insecure - more dimensional perspective on attachment rather than just assigning them to a category

Answer 205

In middle childhood, children tend to become less reliant on their parents as attachment figures Children with positive parent relationships show positive psychological and behavioral adjustment - Children with secure attachments as babies lead to more positive outcomes for kids

Answer 206

Caregiver awareness of children’s activites, friends, and peer groups Parental monitoring is associated with positive child behaviours

Answer 207

1) Authoritarian 2) Permissive 3) Neglectful 4) Authoritative

Answer 208

High control, low warmth Less explaining of rules and high enforcing of rules Children are more likely to have lower self-esteem, confidence, social competence, etc.

Answer 209

High warmth, low control parents Show lots of affection, don’t have lots of rules for thier kids Children are more likely to be immature, lower inhibitory control children are immature, inappropriate, bad impulse control

Answer 210

Low warmth, low control parents "You're on your own, kid" neglectful, absent, competing priorities children at risk of adjustment problems; emotionally withdrawn; emotionally unfulfilled

Answer 211

High warmth, high control parents Associated with best child outcomes (academically and socially) Show lots of affection and love and sensitivity, but have clear expectations/rules for children’s behaviours (allow them some say) More collaborative with children (explain why rules are in place)

Answer 212

HOSTILE AGGRESSION - Actions with the intention to inflict pain on someone - E.g., a kid pushing another kid because they don’t like them INSTRUMENTAL AGGRESSION - Aimed at achieving a specific goal - E.g., a kid pushing another kid to get to the slide first

Answer 213

PHYSICAL AGGRESSION - Peaks and levels off in childhood - E.g., kicking, biting, pushing VERBAL AGGRESSION - Peaks and levels off in childhood - E.g., insults, name-calling, yelling, belittling RELATIONAL AGGRESSION - Non-physical aggression in which harm is caused by hurting someone’s relationships or social status - Verbal in nature - Common form of aggression in childhood through adolescence - E.g., rumours, gossiping, exclusion

Answer 214

2 -3 yo Not great at inhibition Language limitations

Answer 215

Boys consistently engage in more aggressive behaviour than girls do Girls engage in more relational aggression in every age that’s studied Different (emotion) socialization that leads to differences in forms of aggression in boys and girls - boys = less sadness, more anger is acceptable) - girls are punished more for engaging in physical aggression than boys are Possible biological differences Differences in friendships - girls form close intimate friendships in small groups, boys have less closer intimate friendships and associate with larger crowds - relational aggression will be more hurtful in intimate tight-knit friendships

Answer 216

Parental sensitivity is associated with less aggression Corporal punishment/harsh parenting is associated with heightened aggression (i.e., physical punishment by caregiver)

Answer 217

High stress/chaotic households & seeing aggressive behaviour in people living with you is associated with hieghtened levels of aggressive behaviour Link between increased exposure to media violence and aggression (more of a correlation than a causation)

Answer 218

Groups of at least 5 or 6 children who generally share the same age, status, and interests Different from friendship

Answer 219

Deeply important relationships or attachments characterized by mutual liking and affection Mutual affection is particularly important in a friendship (predicts how close friends will be over a period of time) Friends tend to be similar in such characteristics as age, gender, race, activities, hobbies, and personality traits (what comes first– the friendship or the similarity? … The similarity comes first)

Answer 220

PEER ACCEPTANCE - The extent to which a child is liked or accepted by peers (generally) PEER REJECTION - The extent to which a child is disliked and excluded by peers

Answer 221

Behavioural observations - observing kids in classroom, e.g., their exclusion - kids might change beahviour when benign watched Teacher reports - won’t see a lot of the stuff going on in between kids Child reports - most reliable

Answer 222

A type of child-report approach in which children nominate 3-5 peers in their class or grade whom they “like” and “dislike” Children are classified into popular, rejected, controversial, or neglected (categories of rejection and accptance)

Answer 223

Receive a high number of “like” nominations POPULAR-SOCIAL - Children who receive lots of ”likes” (well-liked) - They are generally considerate, kind, and socially skilled at initiating friendships and prosocial toward other children PERCEIVED-POPULAR - Peers asked to nominate who they “believe to be popular” POPULAR-ANTISOCIAL - Considered “cool” - Display aggression

Answer 224

Receive few “likes” and few “dislikes” on sociometric nominations Sometimes evaluated as shy by classmates (introverted) Not at risk: Tend to be able to develop stable friendships

Answer 225

Receive a mix of “like” and “dislike” nominations Although they may be disliked by some peers, they have a substantial number of friends and are pleased with their relationships Sometimes behave aggressively, which can later lead to rejection; if not, they may transition to popular

Answer 226

Receive few “likes” and many “dislikes” on sociometric nominations REJECTED AGGRESSIVE - rejected because they are inappropriately aggressive, low social status REJECTED WITHDRAW - shy, introverts who have become targets of bullying, low social status Both are at risk for negative outcomes

Answer 227

Studies that assess brain response to peer rejection by making children think that they are being rejected or excluded by unknown children (stimulated experiences of exclusion) E.g., “Cyberball” game E.g., Peer chat room simulations - both of them, the kid is ignored ... Areas of the brain that respond to exclusion are those involved in feeling physical pain - Social exclusion is a painful experience for children at the same level as certain types of physical pai

Answer 228

Cell bodies of brain and synapses Shows synaptogensis

Answer 229

Myelinated axons Shows myelination

Answer 230

1) a burst of synaptogenesis - increasing volume & gray matter - especially in prefrontal cortex (higher level cognitive functions) 2) followed by synaptic pruning (decreasing volume) Rlated to puberty Inverted-U shape

Answer 231

Increases LINEARLY across adolescence Myleinaiton increases throughout all periods of development (childhood to adolescence to adulthood) Myelination is more related to age rather than puberty onset

Answer 232

Mature limbic system, immature prefrontal cortex (inverted U-shaped change) Prefrontal cortex = U-shape Asymmetry is linked to behavioural changes in puberty and adolescent period Limbic system is relatively mature by adolescent period - matures faster than prefrontal cortex because it’s related to emotions and hormones which are activated earlier in puberty Limbic system is very sensitive dring this period - in charge of Emotion processing and sensitivity to reward) - adults are more sensitive to this compared to children and adults, meaning they are more prone to risk-taking

Answer 233

Period of lifespan in which individual becomes capable of sexual reproduction Not the same as adolescence - ending of puberty happens much earleir than what we consider to be the adolescent period

Answer 234

endocrine system and nervous system

Answer 235

Produces, circulates, and regulates hormone levels in the body I.e., the hormonal system E.g., hormones, glands, hypothalamus (includes the gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons tha communicate with pituitary gland to release hormones)

Answer 236

its a hormonal feedback loop that controls the production of androgens and estrogens by gonads - hypothalamus monitors levels of androgens and estrogens depending on if the set point is reached has a “Set point” - if the androgen and etsrogen go above that set point, it turns the hypothalamus off - if it doesn’t reach that point, then the hypothalamus turns back on Varies across development

Answer 237

1) Hypothalamus releases GnRH (Gonadotrophin releasing hormone) 2) Which stimulates the PITUITARY GLAND to release hormones (LH + FSH) 3) Which stimulates the GONADS to produce/release sex hormones (andorgens (testosterone) & estrogens) 4) high levels of these sex hormones feed back to the hypothalamus and turn off the hypothalamus, so that it stops stimulating the pituitary gland (lowering steroid production)

Answer 238

there’s not much androgen and estrogen circulating throughout the body Very low “set point,” very sensitive, turns off very fast (so very little of those sex hormones is being produced) Girls and boys have equal low levels of sex hormones

Answer 239

Puberty begins when several different signals– genetic, environmental– instruct the brain to change the “set point” of the HPG axis The set point raises at puberty, so suddenly the hypothalamus is active - The sex hormones are largely produced because the set point is much higher

Answer 240

Increase in brain chemical called kisspeptin– initiates increased secretion of GnRH from hypothalamus Leptin (protein produced by fat cells) stimulates production of kisspeptin … Puberty will not initiate unless there’s enough fat in your body (leptin stimulates kisspeptin which stimulates the hypothaalmus) Hypothalamus becomes less sensitive to androgens/estrogens

Answer 241

Boys produce way more testosterone, and a little more estrogen Girl produce way more estrogen, and a little more testosterone

Answer 242

Adolescent growth spurt (height and weight gain) Development of primary sex characteristics (gonads- testicles & ovaries) Development of secondary sex characteristics (breasts, body hair)

Answer 243

Rapid acceleration in growth Triggered by simultaneous release of growth hormones, thyroid hormones, and androgens

Answer 244

Girls undergo puberty 1-2 years earlier than boys (12 y.o. for girls, 13 y.o. for boys) Rate of growth for boys is a little higher than girls (end up taller) Half of one’s body weight is acquired during puberty

Answer 245

infancy (0-1 y.o.)

Answer 246

adolescent period (akin to infancy rate)

Answer 247

Stage 1= pre-adolescent Stage 5 = mature, adult stage

Answer 248

Growth of penis and scrotum; pubic hair (earlier) Emergence of facial and body ahir; deepening of voice (later) First ejaculation of seminal fluid around 1 year after start of penis growth

Answer 249

Appearance of breast buds; pubic hair (earlier) Menarche (later) Regaular ovulation aroujnd 2 years after menarche

Answer 250

Secondary sex characteristics: 10 y.o. on average Menarche: 12-13 years old on average

Answer 251

Secondary sex characteristics: 11-11.5 y.o. on average

Answer 252

Changes in human development that take place over extended time frames Earlier onsets of puberty/menarche these days compared to back then - Change in nutrition (better nutrition, less experience of bad health, increased body fat, earlier menarche) Look at age of menarche to measure developmental timeline because getting it exactly is a little wishy-washy (e.g., timing of pubic hair developing)

Answer 253

Genetic predispositions to getting menarche earlier than later

Answer 254

Nutrition Health ... Girls and boys who are taller, and girls who are heavier than their peers, mature earlier ... Protein/caloric deficiency (lack of resources/anorexia), chronic illness, intensive exercise from ealry age (low body fat) = delayed puberty

Answer 255

Early (especially) and late maturation can lead to depression and behaviour problems, especially for girls Earlier alcohol use Increased victimization (bullying)

Answer 256

Influence of older peers Associating with older peers

Answer 257

Stress caused by being different from peers Girls maturing very early and boys maturing very late

Answer 258

around 12 yo

Answer 259

Messages about sexuality and body image Maturing early = more of a target for being perceived as being ready fro romantic/sexual relationships

Answer 260

Asynchrony between physical, cognitive, socioemotional maturity Maturing early makes you feel more ready for more mature activities (e.g., hanging out with older kids and engaging in drinking)

Answer 261

Abstract thinking Propositonal thought

Answer 262

Logic and reasoning in which the adolescent mentally manipulates ideas and reflects on situations that are not real or tangible I.e., developing ideas about hypothetical scenarios

Answer 263

The ability to determine whether a set of propositions (statements) are logical based on the wording of the statement E.g., “Everybody who lives in Canada is happy. Jen lives in Canada. Is she happy?” – Yes ; “Everybody who lives in Canada is happy. Jen lives in USA. Is she happy?” – We don’t know (kids struggle with this)

Answer 264

A systematic, scientific approach to problem solving in which a person must generate and test alternative hypotheses to come at a deductuve conclusion aka scientific thinking E.g.: - Piaget’s combination of liquids task - Pendulum problem (have to systematically test things and record results to find out the solution rather than at random)

Answer 265

formal schooling - in certain cultures, kids without formal schooling do not reach formal stage

Answer 266

The ability to focus on relevant information while inhibiting attention to irrelevant Ability to flexbily shift attention from one task or problem to the other as needed (tested by switching tasks) ... Both undergo development throughout adolescence Flanker tasks require focusing on a relevant stimulus while inhibiting attention to distractors - report which direction the central arrow is facing - adults get better at ignoring distracting information

Answer 267

Partly because many processes become automatic (e.g., reading and mathematical facts) Cognitive load decreases for automatic processes (devote less attention to them so we can free up/keep more things in working memory)

Answer 268

age-related changes in cognitive performance

Answer 269

Rehearsal and chunking become faster Use of deep vs shallow memory strategies greater in adolescents than children (e.g., elaboration) ... shows that Kids are more likely to use shallow processing strategies vs adults use more deep processing strategies

Answer 270

Behavioural engagement - E.g., listening, behaving, paying attention, doing homework, doing what teacher wants you to do Emotional engagement - E.g., attitudes toward learning and school, feeling positive toward going to school and learning and peers and extra-curricular activities Cognitive engagement - E.g., being curious, doing homework, engaging in lessons, effective study strategies

Answer 271

Academic motivation drives school engagement Academic motivation declines through adolescence - usually happens during school transition times - can snowball effect for bad grades - but high motivaiton = high grades

Answer 272

Test scores assess/reflect both ability and motivation Very high scores = high aptitude and motivation likely Low scores = lack of aptitude, motivaiton, or both If kids who score low get more external motivation (e.g., money) they have much more motivation and get higher scores on the next test

Answer 273

Perseverance and passion for long-term goals, even in the face of setbacks Controvery about whether it measures something different than just motivation

Answer 274

The role of choice Goal orientation Expectation for success Task value

Answer 275

Choice = higher motivation when adolescents choose to do something (intrinsic)

Answer 276

Performance orientation vs mastery orientation Entity theory (fixed mindset) vs incremental theory (growth mindset) Entity theory (fixed mindset) → Performance goal (want to do well on things, care about the performance of their process rather than the learning) → Avoids challenge, low persistence Incremental theory (growth mindset) → Learning goal (learn with the goal of actually learning something) → Seeks challenge, high persistence

Answer 277

Subjective value a person assigns to a task Depends on: - Interest in the material - Perceived attainment value fo material - Utility value - Cost

Answer 278

1) Experience sampling - teens given a pager and at random times they pager would go off and they would have to report their emotional state at that time 2) Daily diaries - one measure at the end of day they are sent a link to small number of questions – they do it multiple days in a row Reveal fluctuation in emotions across days weeks and months by getting multiple ratings over a short period of time

Answer 279

Teens show very high reactivity Higher intensity of emotion and emotions fluctuate more frequently during teens! - because they have more transitions in a day - they do more different things in a day than adults - natural consequence High to a low back to a high frequently

Answer 280

Positive emotions experienced about 70% of the time HOWEVER... - Positive emotions decrease & negative emotions increase across adolescence - this remains until adulthood - older adult period there is an uptake in positive and downtake in negative study: - followed nearly 400 adolescents from 13 to 18 years of age, 5 days a week for 3 weeks a year for five years - teens’ reports of happiness decreased from early to middle adolescence and never rebounded - internalizatoin & externalization

Answer 281

When negative emotions become painful, they can signal depression Depression rates rise a lot in adolescence than in childhood We are interested in why it increases in adolescents - and why is there a gender difference

Answer 282

Identity issues - early puberty can lead to women susceptibility Women more targets of cyberbullying Women report more daily stress - and relationship problems Biological - Adolescent boys may be suffering but the behaviours are not the same as girls - Boys usually show irritability – more anger and outbursts - that can be linked to low and depressed mood Reporting Social Economical

Answer 283

A lot to do with Methods that are used for suicide - men choosee more immediate lethal methods Again the reporting issues - and what depression looks like in young men - various signs may be missed

Answer 284

Purposeful control of thoughts, emotions and behaviour Impulsiveness is the opposite of self regulation – impulsive would be opposite to high Teens are more impulsive than children and adults

Answer 285

RE delay of gratification (marshmallow) test mainly for young childhood/middle childhood welll... Delay discounting tasks for adolescence - Rewards differ to marshmallow - usually monetary - Given a choice is they want small amount of money now or larger amount later - You can vary the amount - 10 now 20 later - 10 now 200 later - - Can manipulate how long they have to wait for this rewards - 10 now 20 2 days from now Found: - Adolescents more likely to accept immediate reward then wait for a larger one - 13-14 x much more likely – by end may be able to regulate ....Self regulation steadily improves during adolescence!!!!

Answer 286

They are no the same concept but similar sensation = motivation to experience new things, likelihood to engage in risk Where risk taking = engaging in behaviours that are risky in some way Males adolescents more likely to engage

Answer 287

1) Self report survey - Ask teens themselves 2) Behavioural tasks - more later 3) Real world outcomes

Answer 288

BALLOON ANALOGUE RISK TASK - In lab with computer - shown this on computer (slides) - Click on button to pump up the balloon – told more clicks you get the more money you earn but if you click to much and pop it you'll lose all your money - Risk = losing all their monet - Found = teens click more times to blow up ballon then children or adults - Teens who are more risky ( pop ballon) - they rate themselves higher on risk taking and sensation seeking on self reports surveys SIMULATED DRIVING TASKS -These much more real life experiences - Use VR - sat in car - there told to complete the route as quickly as possible - but if you get into an accident you lose all your money - Found: they speed more, run red lights more, crash more often compared to adults - More risky behaviour

Answer 289

Motor vehicle traffic deaths - 2016 - us data Increase in 16 -25 ages And big sex difference - male more likely then females This is hard as the most risk behaviour is younger adolescence - yet cannot test them here as they cannot drive - so limit generalizability

Answer 290

What is the curve of risk taking? - quite hard to answer this question Really matter if peers are present - much more likely to use risky bhevaiour if peers are with you

Answer 291

Low supportiveness - harsh punishment - toxic interaction increase risk of emotion problems - parental interactions are important for emotional development and regualtion Family poverty also a risk factor -

Answer 292

Supportive peers help teens in their emotional well being Peers are also a source if influence in risk taking

Answer 293

Unlike stereotypes, there is very little emotional distance between parents and adolescents !!! Most teens: - Feel close to and loved by parents - Respect parents judgements - Respect parents as individuals ... Conflict between parents and adolescents DOES increase during early adolescence

Answer 294

NOT usually core values - work education and moral values They are usually Mundane issues - - Curfews - Leisure time - Clothing - Cleanliness of room Diagreements stem from different perspectives on who should be in charge of certain aspects of the teens life - Increasing (need for) AUTONOMY or independence - Teens think they should be in charge and parents think “no im still in charge”

Answer 295

Parents attempt to gather information about their children activities Strategy they use is Solicitation (asking quesitons): - Asking questions - Not usually effective - What did you do today? What did you cover in class? - What are you and friends gonna do?

Answer 296

YES e.g., Low substance use , Regulated internet use, Perform better academically

Answer 297

The teens willingness to divulge information to parents Selective disclosure - Get into adolescent they engage in this - Younger kids more likely to share everything - no topic is off limit - As they age - they use selective disclosure - Boys more than girls - girls are more upfront - Huge individual differences

Answer 298

Compatibility - Growing similarities between friends Stability - Enduring over time Reciprocity - Two-way street - trust and intimacy on both sides Respect for individuality - more emphasis on similiaryt in early adolescence - by the end tho, more respect for differences

Answer 299

adolescence ; childhood

Answer 300

15% of waking hours are spent with adults More mixed gender interactions More time without adult supervision Adolescence spend more time with larger groups of peers - crowds

Answer 301

Small groups (~6 individuals) defined by common activities or friendship - e.g., having known each other for a long time Same age Same gender - usually early - later we see mixed Same socioeconomic background Same race and ethnicity

Answer 302

Orientation toward school Attitude toward teen culture Involvement in antisocial activity

Answer 303

Antisocial Aggressive adolescents gravitate toward eah other - Common factor - is there antisocial and aggressive behaviour Usually rejected by other kids because of their antisocial tendencies

Answer 304

Selection: already similar characteristics Socialization: becaomse friends and overtime became similar Seems to be much more on selection - both deviant and positive groups – associate because they are similar

Answer 305

cliques and friendships are moderately stable over time More stable during later years of highschool Actual compositions of teens cliques may shift - e.g., Someone can join it - someone can leave it - Defining characteristics of the cliques does not change tho !!!

Answer 306

Larger more vaguely defined groups based on reputation - may nto even be friends with them Jocked - nerds - punkc - popular Memberships is based on reputation or stereotypes - not actual friendships

Answer 307

Youth imitate the behaviour of high-status peers - Crowds are not the same age - younger members tend to imitate the older people in the crown Crowds establish social norms - Values and expectations of a pesons behaviour If they follow these norms they tend to be reinforced for that - accepted by the crowd Crowds reinforce social norms - Rewarding people who follow the norms and punishing people who do not follow those social norms Adolescents identity

Answer 308

reference groups

Answer 309

Structure can change over time - with crowd becoming: - more differentiated - more permeable - less hierarchical These changes allow for more freedome to change crowds – enhance their status

Answer 310

31% positive effect 45% neutral effect 24% negative effect

Answer 311

Emotional connection Prosocial interactions Protective for adolescents who experience geographic or social isolation

Answer 312

Overuse - Behavioural addiction Misuse and disclosing too much info Online harassment and unwanted exposure to sexually explicit material - Parasocial relationships

final Flashcards

(339 cards)