1
Q
explicit
A
(declarative)
With conscious recall
- Can verbalize or visualized
- We have some awareness of them
- Formed later than implicit memories
2
Q
Semantic
A
Facts-general knowledge
3
Q
Implicit
A
(non declarative/ procedural)
Skills- motor and cognitive
Dispositions-classical and operant conditioning effects
- can’t be verbalized or visualized
- need physiological and behavioural responses
4
Q
Study- physiological response
A
- Young children
- Shown photos of other children and asked if they recognized them
- Children verbally weren’t very good at indicating whether they recognized them
- Galvanic skin response picked up on (physiological signs of recognition) when they saw someone they knew
5
Q
Study - behavioral response
A
- People are shown images of a language they do not know (familiarization phase)
- Then they are given a stack of cards containing words they have and haven’t seen before and they are asked to sort them
- Even though they aren’t good at verbally saying which ones they have seen before they are good at sorting based on ones they have and haven’t seen before
6
Q
Preference for novelty
A
- can be taken as an indication of memory (habituation/ dishabituation)
- memory for visual information
- 6-month-olds can demonstrate memory over two-week delays
7
Q
Preference for the familia
A
- is also taken as an indication of memory
- auditory information
- as early as 1-month of age, infants can demonstrate memory over 3- day delays
8
Q
Rovee-Collier’s mobile studies
Conjugate-reinforcement procedure
A
- Mobile, ribbon attached to infant’s ankle
- Baseline rate measured (3 mins) just for kicking (movement)
- Reinforcement phase (9 mins) ribbon attached to the mobile, kicking moves the mobile
- babies kicking rate doubles (want to move mobile)
- Test phase after time has elapse
- ribbon not connected
- what can this tell us?
- if the infants kicking rate is increased from the baseline we assume that the baby remembers that kicking caused the mobile to move before
- if there is no increase then we assume they do not remember the reinforcement
Findings - 3-months olds can remember for 8-14 days
- After 14 days kicking rate goes back to baseline
- 6-month olds display very little generalization from 1st to 2nd exposure
- they compared no change to context change (environment, mobile)
- encoding of situation is very specific, with generalization improving after exposure to slight variations (variations in the setup)
- very specific encoding of the event
- Memory of events is affected by time between exposures: if elapsed time is 3 days or less, infants tend to have better recall over greater time spans
- Clearly infants are capable of forming memories
9
Q
Infantile Amnesia
A
- Inability to recall memories from the earliest years of your life (typically before the age of 4)
- This changes across the ages of 4-13 years of age
- 4 or 5 remember memories from earlier childhood than older children
- Not just the passage of time
10
Q
Autobiographical (episodic memory)
A
- Memory for specific events that happened to you
- Have affective, perceptual components
11
Q
Value of autobiographical memory?
A
- To share experiences with others
- To better understand our current selves (what we like and don’t like)
- To predict and interpret events
12
Q
Why can’t we remember early autobiographical events?
A
i) Changes in the brain
ii) Absence of structure with which to organize early memories
iii) Incompatibility of encoding/ retrieval
13
Q
Changes in the brain
A
i) Hippocampal neurogenesis
- Formation of neurons in the hippocampus (involved with memory formation)
- High in early life and decline with age
- Pruning may result in our inability to access hippocampus-dependent episodic memories later in life
- These physiological changes in the brain impact retrieval
ii) Absence of structure with which to organize early memories
One skill that contributes to develop of autobiographical memory is the ability to structure events in a narrative format
Support
- children of elaborative mothers (caregivers) remember more than children with repetitive mothers (child is asked about what they did vs. mother repeating what they did)
- Children are less likely to remember things that aren’t talked about with their mothers (caregivers)
- Talk may contribute memory processes: structure and reinstatement
iii) Incompatibility of encoding/ retrieval
- How we encode information encode information affects the retrieval of it
- Mismatches occur– why?
- changes in schema
across development
(how we conceptualize
the world is different)
- language ability at
time of encoding (the
better the language
skill at the time of
encoding the better it
will be retrieved later
on)
14
Q
Mary Courage & Mark Howe- novelty vs familiar
A
- showed 3.5 month olds a stimulus for 30 seconds
- tested for their preference after delays of 1 min, 1 day and 1 month
novel - 1 min
no bias- 1 day
familiar- 1 month - depends on the strength of the familiar in LTM at the time of delay
15
Q
Rovee Collier and colleagues- train task
A
- similar to mobile task for for older children
- learn to press a lever to get a train to go
- test retention with delay and rate with which lever is pressed
- duration of infants memories showed gradual but steady increases with age, reflecting a continuously developing memory system
16
Q
deferred imitation
A
imitating a model after a significant delay
17
Q
neuroanatomical model
A
a transition from implicit to explicit memory, controlled by two different neuranatomical memory systems that mature at different rates
18
Q
Why can’t we remember events from the past?
A
- difference in encoding
- verbal skills
- lack of sense of self
- verbatim vs gist
- neurogenesis
- lack of structure and organization
- parent-child interaction
(account for cultural and gender differences)
19
Q
Damage to Hippocampus
A
- intact implicit, lack explicit
- can learn learn skills but have no memory of learning them
20
Q
Development of memory
A
- require awareness and attention
- must make sense of the event
- children tend to pay attention to irrelevant info
constructive nature
adults - store gist and reconstruct during recall
- interpret based on experience
scripts: schematic organization of real-world events; knowledge structures that describe the way that events usually go
21
Q
Are scripts beneficial for memory foundation? Why or why not?
A
- yes and no
- more efficient for memory story (reduce load)
- not helpful if the event involves something that is not part of our script (may result in errors in recollection)
22
Q
Role of parents in teaching children to remember
A
- learn what is important
- cue
- provide structure and fill in missing info
- elaborate
23
Q
Ceci, Huffman, Smith and Loftus- source misattribution
A
- Examined how easy it was to produce source misattributions in children
- Two age groups : younger (3-4 years) and older (5-6 years)
- Participants were asked about real and fictional events and were to distinguish between them
- talked to parents to get a list of things that had happened to the child and things that had not
- Child was to indicate whether or not it had happened to them, if it had they were to describe the event if not they would move on to the next things on the list
- Repeated this procedure 7-10 times (once/week)
- Asked for free narrative at the final session
- Around a third of the younger children falsely assented (36%) with lower rates in the older group (11%)
- They claimed that they had actually experienced some of the fictional events that they had only thought about
- Not only say that it happened but would elaborate and give much detail
Implications - Not leading questions just repeated questions can lead to false memories
- They followed up with a subset of the participants
- re-tested 22 of the
original children two
years later - in the original study,
this group has a false
assent rate of 22%
- accuracy for true
events was very good- false consent rate
dropped to 13% -
- false consent rate
- re-tested 22 of the
- Another factor which can affect recall accuracy: talking to their parents about events
24
Q
source misattribution error (also known as source-monitoring errors)
A
Misidentifying the source of a memory or belief
25
A focus on accuracy in misinformed mothers puts young children at risk for false memories
Principle, Kirkpatrick, and Langley
Purpose:
- To examine "how mothers" goal orientation and exposure to misinformation can.. Affect accuracy of children's memory reports"
Participants:
- 46 month to 68 months olds
- Their mothers
Method
- Mother's goal orientation (natural-focused vs accuracy focused) crossed with mother' exposure to misinformation (no misinformation vs. misinformation)
- Children viewed a show by Magic Mumfry (magic show where he would try to pull a rabbit out of a hat but failed)
- Mothers asked to talk about the show one week later
- normally vs. with an
accuracy focus (do you
remember for sure,
emphasizing to make
make sure they have
the correct details)
- half of each group
was misinformed
(told that the rabbit
got lose in the class)
- Memory interview
- open-ended question
- "did anything happen
to Mumfry's rabbit"
Results
- When mothers were told to focus on accuracy, they were more likely to try to control the discussion
- Misinformation interacted with conversation
- when mothers were
not misinformed,
none of the children
reported seeing the
target activity,
regardless of
conversation focus
(accuracy or normal)
- in contrast, 13% and
27% of the children
with misinformed
mothers did
(naturally- and
focused-
conversations,
respectively)
Interpretation
- Implications for children giving eye-witness testimony
- "our data suggests that parents who are especially focused on preparing their children to accurately recall a past experience may unknowingly shape children's reports away from the truth even when they have not been exposed to misinformation
- "if parents have been misinformed, children's later accounts likely will nit only parrot details suggested by their parents but also contain a good deal of novel embellishments that go
26
Factors that influence children's eyewitness memory
- IQ
incentives
intermediate stress
background knowledge
- types of questions
- interviewer characteristics
- props used
27
Reasons for susceptibility to misleading questions
- verbatim traces are more susceptible to forgetting
- social factors (desire to comply)
- background knowledge
- number of times event is experienced
- developmental differences in WM and inhibitory control
- theory of mind
28
What is language?
Systematic and conventional use of sounds, signs, or written symbols for the intention of communication or self-expression
29
What are the properties of human language?
Productive:
- Finite set of words + finite set of rules = an infinite number of acceptable utterances
- Sentences can be recursive (we can keep adding to a sentence)
Grammatical:
- There are rules that govern the construction of sentences (particular to a language)
- Syntactic rules are descriptive (describe the rules), not prescriptive (ought to produce)
Meaningful:
- With sentences
- With individual words
- With even smaller units of meaning (morphemes)
Referential
- Refers to things
Arbitrary
- Picked at random by fixed by social convention
30
phoneme
smallest unit of sound
31
Morphemes
smallest meaningful unit of language
32
Phonology
how sounds are put together to form larger units, such as words
33
Morphology
how units of meaning are combined into words
34
Syntax
how words are put together to form sentences
35
Semantics
how the meaning of sentences is determined from the meaning of words and the way that they are combined
36
Early receptive skills
- learn which sounds matter (phonemes)
- learn word boundaries
(statistical learning ex. transitional probabilities)
37
transitional probabilities
high frequency of co-occurences (around 8-months)
38
Producing spoken language
General pattern of emergence
- Newborns: crying, vegetative sounds
- Around 2 months: cooing and laughter
- Around 4 months: vocal play --- simple articulation (ex. ma)
- Around 6 months: front of mouth consonants; reduplicated babbling (ex. ma-ma)
- Around 9 months: jargon (intonation)
- Around 1 year: patterned speech
- Deaf children show a similar pattern with the first 3 stages
- they do demonstrate manual babbling
39
What do speakers in a child's environment do to help a child learn that language?
Infant-directed speech (formerly known as motherese and sometimes parentese)
- Helpful in early language acquisition
40
Properties of infant-directed speech:
- Repetitive
- High-pitched
- Exaggerated intonation
- Simplified words
41
phonemic awareness
the knowledge hat words consist of separable sounds (important for reading)
42
Morphological development
- Dealing with the structure of words
- morphemes
- Children have to learn what meaning morphemes add
- example: cat vs cats
43
Wug task
- What is the plural of wug - wugs
- We know they understand regularities because this word wouldn't be something they have heard (made up)
44
Mean length utterance
average number of morphemes in a sentence
- indication of linguistic development
45
Roger Brown
- studied Adam, Eve and Sarah
- found general same order of 14 morphemes
46
overregularization
apply a rule to something it doesn't apply to
47
retrograde amnesia
inability to remember information and events from before the onset
48
anterograde amnesia
inability to form new memories
49
Syntactic development
- Syntax has to do with knowledge of grammatical rules
- it does not require an awareness of the rules
- technically need to produce two-word utterance to see evidence of syntactic development
- Early production: one-word stage --> holophrases (around 1 year)
- one word utterances that can mean many things ("shoes" -could mean where are my shoes, put on my shoes")
- We see children move from single-word to multiword utterances (vaguely sentence like)
- Telegraphic period (2-word stage; starting around 18 months)
- reduce only to most important words
- The two-word utterance are very simple--they lack function words and word endings
- but they do not have some structure-- "eat cookie" but not 'cookie eat' - follows the correct order
- By around 2 years of age, children are producing sentences with around 4 words
- by 3 years, they are producing complex speech
- Children demonstrate relatively rapid acquisition of syntax, leading researchers to test how quickly, and at what age, we can see evidence of this ability using artificial grammars
- expose children to a language they created and then present ungrammatical (violations) and see how they react, infants listen longer to violations- sensitive to rules
50
Semantic Development
- Around 1 year of age: production of first recognizable word
- Mapping words to their meanings can be very challenging
- the riddle of induction--- Gavagai
51
vocabulary growth
- First words
- most early words are general nouns followed by specific nouns, and action words
- Rapid development evident (word spurt; naming explosion)
- around 18 months, vocabulary development takes off
- doubles by 21 months and again by 24 months
- fast mapping occurs (children learn what a word means in as few as one exposure)
- Vocabulary increases drastically during the elementary-school years
As children learn the names for things, error are often made: overextension, underextensions and overlaps occur
52
overextensions
stretching a familiar word beyond it's correct meaning
53
underextensions
boundary for a category is too restricted
54
lexicon
how many words one knows
55
Lexical constraints
reduce the number of possibilities considered
56
two possibilities for how children learn words so quickly
i) Lexical constraints
ii) Syntactic bootstrapping (grammatical cues)
57
Syntactic bootstrapping
The grammatical form can provide cues about what a novel word could mean
Examples:
- 'sibbing', ' a sib', 'some sib'
- the suffix '-ing' indicates an action word (mixing)
- 'a' indicates a singular object (bowl)
- 'some' indicates contents (what's in the bowl)
'this is a dax', 'this is a dax one'
58
whole object assumption
word refers to the whole object
59
taxonomic assumption
children assume the words that refer to things that are similar
60
mutually exclusive assumption
different words refer to different things
- present 2 objects, one the child knows, one they do not ask them to get the unfamiliar one, even if they have never seen or heard the word they will assume it corresponds to the novel object
61
Main Nativist approach: Chomsky
Language acquisition device (LAD)
62
Universal grammar:
- There is a basic design underlying the grammars of all human languages, and this design is innate
- Poverty of the stimulus argument
63
Poverty of the stimulus argument
claims children learn language so rapidly and complexly despite receiving limited, messy input (the "poor stimulus") that they must possess innate, language-specific knowledge, called Universal Grammar (UG
64
Critical period for language acquisition?
- Specific window of time where a particular event must take place if it is to happen at all (ex. first language)
Feral children
- Genie (deprived and isolated from language, discovered at 13, never acquired normal language)
65
Learning Theory Perspective
posits language is acquired like any skill: through imitation, repetition, and reinforcement (rewards/praise for correct speech) from the environment, treating language as observable "verbal behavior" shaped by stimuli
66
Advantage of bilingualism
- Executive function, later onset of for dementia
- higher metalinguistic awareness (better reading and writing)
- perform better on theory of mind tasks
- better automatic processing of sound and recognize wider range of phonemes
66
Why do bilingual speakers have better EF
- require inhibition
- flexibility
67
Study that explore EF in bilingual (one group unimodal (two spoken languages) vs. bimodal (spoken and sign))
bimodal group had the same EF as control group, this is because you sign and speak simultaneously and it doesn't require as much inhibition and flexibility as two spoken languages that can not be spoken at the same time (requires switching) unimodal group performs better
68
Developing a theory of mind
Origin in philosophy
The intentional stance is "the strategy of interpreting the behaviour of an entity (person, animal artifact, or like) by treating it as if it were a rational agent that governed its 'choice' of 'action' by a 'consideration' of its 'beliefs' and 'desire'
69
Dennett's three stances
1) Physical stance
- Consider the laws of physics and the physical properties of an object
- When an object is not held up, it will fall
- If you know enough about an object (ex. car) you can inspect it at the physical level
2) Design stance
- What is the objects intended purpose
- Ex. an alarm clock is intended to go off at a specific time
- If there is no human error than the object did not due what it was intended to do
3) Intentional stance
- Consider the mental and emotional states of the object
Ex. thinking that a computer is out to get you when it is malfunctioning
70
theory of mind
an individual has a theory of mind if he imputes mental states to himself and other
71
Belief-desire reasoning
explain and predict behaviour based on desires and beliefs
- Some researchers use the term mindreading (e.g. Simon Baron-Cohen)
Note that ToM involves attributing mental states to one's self and to other
72
Why does theory of mind matter?
- Helps understand why people do what they do
- Helps with social relationships
- Contributed to understanding humour and sarcasm
- Needed to resolve misunderstandings
Helps us to tell and detect lies
73
unexpected contents task
smarty tube replaced with pencils, ask children what is in it, they say chocolate, then show them, close it and ask them what they thought it was before, they say pencils, asked what other people will think, they say pencils
74
Change of location
- Original version Heinz and chocolate
- This task is often referred to as the 'Sally-Anne task'
- Character A places something somewhere then character A leaves and character B moves it somewhere else, when character A come back, ask a child where they will look
- To pass they need to say the original location that A put it
- Children often say where it was moved
75
example of false belief tasks
Appearance/ reality (recall rock/sponge)
76
Variations for the results of false belief tasks
- Ages of participants
- Dolls vs. pictures/movies/acted out
- acting it out helps
- Different types of key questions used (compare 'where does he think the ball is?" to 'where will she first look for the ball?')
- 'first' indicates that
there might be more
than one place to
look
- Who carries out the character movement
77
False belief development: explanations
1) Maturation of ToM module
- Existence of an innate ToM module
- Autism is taken as an example of a specific impairment of ToMM
2) Metarepresentational competence develops
- The ability to represent one's own and other's representations develops
- Representational deficit as an explanation for failure
- children's difficulty stems from and inability to represent contradictory information, such as the location of the object
3) Language limitations constrain successful performance at younger ages
- DeVilliers (specific syntactic structure), Astington (general syntactic/ semantic), Olson (general semantic)
- Changes in language the account for the shift
4) Other cognitive skills required for successful FB (false belief) performance
- Executive function skills predict/drive performance
-inhibition considered particularly (inhibit what you know, to consider others perspectives)
- They need EF to develop false belief or they need it to demonstrate the ability the already had
- Supported by neurocognitive research focusing on the prefrontal cortex
5) Social factors impact FB performance
- Mother's mental state talk predicts performance
- mothers who use more mental state talk, children perform better
- Sibling effect ('FB is contagious, you can catch it from your sibs') and family size
- children who have many siblings especially older siblings have better success on FB performance
- older siblings often deceive younger siblings, and learn form older siblings
- Interaction with adults
- children who spend more time with adults, show better performance
78
Some evidence for earlier emerging ToM:
- Implicit ToM (not consciously aware of)
- anticipatory looking
- eye tracking
- explicit (asked question: ex. where will Heinz look) vs. implicit (looking behaviour ex. where did they look first)
- In infancy
- violation of expectation
- we would expect the observer to think an object is in one box, moved when they leave, observer comes back and reaches in box (original or new location) violation of expectation would be if they reached in the new box we would expect them to look longer at this situation if they understand
79
deVilliers and Pyers- syntax
- Proposition (green) (can be true or false)
- Thinks (refers to the mental state)
- The whole sentence can be true even if the proposition is false
- Until children can understand this specific syntactic structure they can't succeed in this task
Ex. she said there was a bug in her hair (no mental state verb), we'd expect this ability to come first
79
basic cognitive skills underlying theory of mind
a) viewing oneself and others as intentional agents
b) the ability to take the perspective of another
80
Vendetti, Kamawar and Andrews- deception
- Found that children accuracy at identifying both self-serving and prosocial lies and truths were related to false belief understanding ---> identifying a statement as a lie or truth requires a consideration of the speaker's beliefs
- Also examined lie telling for both prosocial and self-serving lies
81
what are the 3 Rs
- writing
- arithmetic
- reading
82
Emergent literacy
"the idea that there is a developmental continuum of reading skills, from those of the preschooler to those of the proficient reader"
83
Chall's stages of reading
Stage 0 (birth until beginning of 1st grade)
- Learning the letters of alphabet
- Knowing some of the letters by sight
Stage 1 (during 1st year of formal reading instruction)
- Developing phonemic awareness, phoneme-grapheme correspondence and phonological recoding skills
Stage 2 (2nd and 3rd grade)
- Gain fluency in reading simple material
Stage 3 (4th through 8th grade)
- Can acquire reasonably complex, new information from written text --> 'reading to learn'
Stage 4 (8th through 12th grade)
- Gain the ability to draw inferences, understand and coordinate information from multiple perspectives
Stage 5 (college/university)
Learn to read strategically (careful vs. skimming)
84
Conventions of print
children exposed to written language know things like reading goes from left-to-right, top-to-bottom, and front-to-back
85
Knowledge of letters
alphabet
86
Phoneme-grapheme correspondence
children must learn how sounds (phonemes) correspond to letters (graphemes)
87
Emergent reading
'pretend reading', making up narrative to go along with the pictures
88
Emergent writing
'pretend writing'; making squiggles to write their name, a story, a grocery list, etc.
89
Phonemic awareness
"the knowledge that words consist of separable sounds"
90
rapid atomization naming
the ability to rapidly name as many familiar items as possible
91
phonological recoding
reading process where you sound out a printed word to convert it to spoken language
92
practicing phonemic awareness
rhyme games
Example:
- Asked 4- and 5 year olds tap out the number of sounds in words
- Performance poor, but highly predictive (correlated with reading)
93
Other measure of phonemic awareness:
A) Detection of rhymes
- Children who can pay attention to the sounds of the words in their language
B) Phonemic segmentation tasks (phoneme deletion and phoneme completion)
- Requires you to break up sounds and alter the words (either omit or complete)
- Muter et al. found that performance on phonemic segmentation tasks was significantly correlated to reading ability at the end of the first grade
- Ex. say dog then omit the g
- Easier when the sound is deleted at the beginning or when it is still a word without the sound
- The experimenter would say part of a word and children would need to complete the word
94
deep orthography
spelling system fir converting letters to sound is irregular
95
shallow orthography
close correspondence between letters and sounds
96
Children have to learn a number of principles
A) One-one principle
- Each item is counted once
B) Stable-order principle
- Counting words are in a stable order
C) Cardinal principle
- Final count word when counting the number of items equals the quantity of that item
D) Abstraction principle
- Can be applied to any array or collection of items
E) Order-irrelevant principle
- Going out of item leads to errors (lose count, miss items)
97
strategies children use for math
- count-on
- fingers and objects
- out loud
- retrieval
- decomposition
- min strategy
- sum strategy
98
Ramani and Siegler
- "promoting broad and stable improvements in low-income children's numerical knowledge through playing number broad games"
- 4 and 5 year old from head start program
- Pre-test, post-test, and follow-up test (9weeks later)
- number line estimation, magnitude comparison, numeral identification, and counting
- given a number line from 1-10 and asked to place a number
- identifying which numbers are larger
- Two interventions compared
- both interventions consisted of 1-hour of game playing
- the between-children condition had to do with the design of the game that was played
- number board game (used to test) vs. colour board game
Result:
- Only one of the games resulted in significant improvements (number board game)
- Found near (number line estimation)(skill has been transferred to something similar) and far transfer (magnitude comparison, numeral identification, and counting) (related but not that similar skill)
- Follow-up 9 weeks later
Interpretation
- These tasks can improve numeric abilities
Implications
- Low cost way of teaching mathematical skills
Cognitive Development
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