1
Q
accomodation
A
focusing of the eye
- poor at birth, rapidly develops (adultlike by 3 months)
2
Q
convergence
A
Both eyes looking at the same things
- newborns are unable to do
3
Q
coordination
A
both eyes following a moving stimulus together
- improve in the first months of life (adultlike by 6 months)
4
Q
acuity
A
ability to see clearly
- poor at birth, improves within the first year of life (adultlike by 6 years)
5
Q
fovea
A
high concentration of cones
- Cones are more widely distributed in the foveas of newborns. This makes the cones of the newborns much less sensitive to light
6
Q
newborns and colour perception
A
Infants do not perceive much in the way of colour
- infants fail to discriminate among a wide range of colours until about 8 weeks of age
7
Q
development of visual preferences
A
- movement
- high contour
- complexity
symmetry - curvature
8
Q
externality effect
A
infants of 1 month direct attention primarily to the outside of a figure - by 2 months most infants fixations are on internal stimulus features
9
Q
top heavy
A
more attention to the upper portion of a stimulus
10
Q
differentiation theory
A
posits that infants perception becomes increasingly specific with time, as the sense of familiarity allows them to distinguish one stimulus from another
11
Q
goldilocks effect
A
infants take an active role in samplaing their environment, looking longer at stimuli that are neither too simple nor too complex
12
Q
Morton and johnson two process theory for infant face preference
A
An initial process is accessed primarily through subcortical pathways, and this controls newborns’ tracking of faces, because of their limited sensory capacity, they do not learn the features
The second process is under the control of cortical circuits because of experience infants begin to build a representation that enable them to discriminate the human face
13
Q
schema
A
a representation of an event that preserves the temporal and spatial arrangement of its distinctive elements without necessarily being isomorphic with the event
14
Q
auditory development
A
- functional at birth
- not adultlike until about 10 years old
- sensitive to high frequency
- preference for language
- can perceive all phonemes
- preference for music of their own culture
15
Q
intersensory integration
A
the coordination of two or more sensory modalities
16
Q
Elizabeth Spelke- intersenory integration
A
- 4-month-olds
- watched side by side clips of peek-a-boo or drumming with only one sound track playing
- spent more time looking at the clip that matched the sound
recognize that certain sound sequences go with certain visual displays
17
Q
Loraine Bahrick and John Wilson- proprioception and vision
A
- ability of 5-month-olds to integrate proprioceptive and visual information
- Babies were seated with a tray blocking their legs
- Two screens displayed, one of their own legs and one of someone else
- babies discriminate between the two films and spend more time looking at one than the other
- same thing with 3-month-olds- no preference, concluded that proprioceptive visual integration is established by 5 months
18
Q
intersensory matching
A
A child must be able to recognize an object initially inspected in one modality through another modality
19
Q
Susan Rose- intersensory matching
A
- showed that 6-month-olds can perform visual-tactile integration
- presented an object (either through vision or touch) and later presented a small set of objects through the alternative mode
- infants spent more time during the transfer phase exploring novel stimuli
20
Q
perceptual narrowing
A
The process by which infants use environmental experience to become specialists in perceiving stimuli relevant to their species and culture
21
Q
other race effect
A
Infants develop the ability to discriminate between the face of their own race relative to other races
22
Q
perceptual narrowing for speech
A
- preference for speech narrows within the first 3 months
- 4- 6 month olds can b=tell the difference between sentences spoken in their native language by vision alone
23
Q
violation of expectation method
A
an infant reaction to an unexpected event is used to infer what he or she knows
24
Q
Andrea and Renee Baillargeon -development of infants’ understanding of objects
A
- 2.5-month-old infants watched a toy mouse disappear behind one screen on the right side of a display and then reappear on the left side of the display seconds later from behind another screen on the left side
- Infants looked longer at the magically appearing mouse (doesn’t appear in between the gap) than at the expected event (travels through the gap)
- suggests they were puzzles by this unexpected event
25
Core knowledge
born with a small set of distinct systems of knowledge that have been shaped by natural selection over evolutionary time and upon which new and flexible skills and belief system is later built
26
3 core knowledge systems in infancy
1) object permanence
2) knowledge of people and their actions
3) the ability to represent numbers or quantities
27
cohesion
objects have boundaries and their components are connected
28
continuity
objects move along unobstructed path and cannot be in the same place
29
contact
one object must contact another to make it move
30
goal directedness
intentional humans are directed to goals
31
efficiency
goals are achieved through the use of effective means
32
contingency
means are not applied rigidly but adjusted to the conditions found
33
reciprocity
such as taking turns in a conversation
34
abstractness
apply different entities or things from different sensory modalities
35
comparability and combinality
comparable and can be combined by addition and subtraction
36
object constancy
an object does not change in size or shape depending on how one views it
37
object permanence
Objects continue to exist even if they are out of sight
38
constancy in infants- study
- present an object at one distance until a baby habituates
- then show it at a different distance
- infants display a degree of size and shape constancy
39
older children and constancy
- sometimes reveal what appears to be a surprise ignorance of size and shape constancy
- discrepancy between the implicit knowledge of the infant and explicit verbalizable knowledge of the older child
- disconnect between implicit knowledge and explicit knowledge
40
object cohesion and continuity studies
- present an image of a rod blocked by and block until the infant habituates
- then present an image with a rod in the same orientation
- infants dishabituate
- 4 month olds only treat it as the same stimulus when it is moving
41
Renee Baillargeon support study
box and a platform
- 3 months olds aren't surprised with impossible event (box hanging over edge)
- 4.5 months consider the contact with the platform important (amount)
- 6.5 months expect the box to fall unless a significant portion is on the platform
42
occlusion study
- tall object behind and occluded by smaller object
- 4.5 month olds act surprised
43
containment study
tall object placed within shorter object (covered)
- Do not show surprise until 7.5 months
44
covering study
The shorter object covers the taller object
- do not show surprise until 12 months
45
principle of persistence
objects not only exist continuously and remain cohesive, they also retain their individual properties
46
Piaget object permanence
- Until 4 months infants only understand objects as extensions of their own actions
- infants will retrieve a hidden object if they are reaching in that direction (6 months)
- at 8 months, infants can retrieve completely hidden objects
47
Piaget invisible displacements
- object is hidden in one container and then hidden under another container out of vision of the observer
- ex. potato, box and rug
- chain of custody
- not found until 18 months
48
Baillergeon- new look at object permanence
- 3.5 month and 4.5 month olds were habituated to a moving screen that was rotated 180 degrees
- experimental group - then shown a wooden block, and the screen moving through the block (impossible)
- control group - no block
- infants looked longer for the experimental group
49
Nora Newcombe- sandbox
- babies watch object be buried in a sandbox
- after 10 seconds it is dug up- done 4 times
- 5th time it is dug up at a new location
- babies looked longer (surprised)
- not surprised when it was a different object
50
approximate number system
human infants share with other animals a non-symbolic system for thinking about quantities in an imprecise and intuitive way
1. numerosity: the ability to determine quickly the number of items in a set without counting
2. ordinality: a basic understanding of more than and less than
51
numerosity study
- 10-12 month olds watched different number of graham crackers be placed inside two boxes
- infants consistently crawl to the box with more
when the number exceeds 4 the response is random
52
Karen Wynn numerosity
- 5-month-olds watch a series of actions involving either a possible operation or an impossible operation
- Infants were surprised by impossible operations
- indicates some rudimentary ideas of addition
53
Ordinality
6 month olds can tell the difference in quantities larger than 4 but the ratio must be larger (1:2)
54
Bayesian statistical inference
a mathematical probability theory that accounts for learning as a process by which knowledge is compared to currently observed evidence
55
Bayesian study
- 12-month-olds reasoning about objects moving out of a container with an occluded opening
- 3 factors were manipulated that could be used to predict which object would exit first : number of each type of object, physical arrangement and duration of occlusion
- 12 month olds were capable of combining prior knowledge with current information to develop appropriate expectations
56
attention getting properties
ex. motion
57
attention keeping properties
ex. high contrast, detal and complexity
58
familiarity and novel preference
3 months and 9 months
59
Video of lemurs
- Using looking time they were able to determine whether the babies can discriminate between different lemurs
- Infants under 6-months looked at both lemurs (interested by both because they could tell it was a new lemur)
- Infants over 6 months were bored by the second lemur because they couldn't tell the difference between the two and thought that it was the same lemur (bored- looked away)
60
Is face processing species specific during the first year of life?
Research question
Can infants distinguish among the faces of other species?
Method
- Paired visual comparison
DV
- Looking time (looking longer at novel stimuli)
- Image is presented by itself (familiarization phase)
- Then two images are presented one novel one familiar
- 6-Month olds, 9 month old and adults
Results
- All group were good at distinguishing among human faces
- Only 6 month olds were able to distinguish between the macaque faces (spent more time looking at the novel faces)
Interpretation
- Face processing becomes specialized over the course of development
"these results suggest that the 'perceptual narrowing' phenomenon may represent a more general change in neural networks involved in early cognition
61
Pascalis- Macaque faces repeated exposure
Method
- 6-month olds
- Present macaque faces
- They show a novel face preference
- Give parents a package of 6 photos of macaque faces each with a name
- Parents present faces to infants every day at first and then a couple times a week until the infants are 9 months old
Results
- They find a novel face preference with not just the initial novel face preference but to novel faces of macaques
- Just this brief exposure to the 6 faces help keep the sensitivity to macaque faces
- Brought in 9 month olds as a control group
- Did not find the same effect (novel face effect)
Interpretation
- Repeated exposure allows infants to maintain the sensitivity to non-human faces
62
Goal: to clarify the developmental origins of the ORE during the first months of life
Participants
- Caucasian infants
- 3-, 6-, and 9-month olds
Four conditions
- Caucasian
- African
- Chinese
- Middle-eastern
Stimuli
- 24 colour images of male and female faces (all had dark hair/eyes)
- Tried to carefully match each face pair
- Participants equally across conditions, with half of each condition
Method
- VPC : visually paired comparison
Dependent variable
- Novel face looking time
- Two test trials (faces switched sides)
Main results
- Age groups differed in terms of novel face preference across the 4 groups
- 3 Month olds preferred novel faces for all groups
- 6 month olds preferred novel faces for chinses and Caucasian faces
- 9-month olds preferred novel faces for Caucasian faces
- ORE effect begins around 6 months, fully present by 9 months
63
Anzures, Quinn, Pascalis, Slater, Tanaka and Lee
Given that the fine-tuning is experience dependent, they ask, "what happens when an infant's perceptual system has already become more fine-tuned? Is this fine-tuning reversible?
Participants:
- Caucasian 8- to 10 month olds who were unable to discriminate Asian faces and had no family or friends of Asian ethnicity
Method
- Experimental vs. control group
- Exposed to either female Asian or female Caucasian faces daily, for 3 weeks (4-minute videos)
- Pretest and tests (along the way)
- VPC for female and male Asian faces (novelty preference)
Results
- Control group did not present a novel face preference
- Experimental group showed a preference for novel faces of Asian males and females
Conclusion
- Visual experience with a novel stimulus category can reverse the effects of perceptual narrowing during infancy via improved stimulus recognition and encoding
- Note that this was pretty limited exposure
More recent research supports this by demonstrating that older children (2.5-year-olds) can also be sensitized to a faces of 'other races'
64
Visual expansion
as something gets closer to your eye it gets bigger (requires movement)
65
Motion parallax
when we are moving things that are closer to us appear to move faster than those farther away to us
66
Occlusion
item that covers another item is closer (involves motion, phone moving in front of water bottle)
67
Interposition
static occlusion (one object blocking another)
68
Texture
when we can see more detail we perceive it as closer
69
Relative size
we perceive the object that takes up more of the visual field as being closer
70
Stereopsis
each eye has a different view
71
infants and a visual cliff
glass table: one half with a checkerboard directly beneath and the other one is 3 feet below, babies initially learning to crawl would crawl over the "drop-off" after weeks of experience with crawling they refuse to cross the "drop-off" (visual drop-off"
72
conditioned head turning
- attention of infant is kept using a puppet
- sounds are playing (phonemes)
- when the sound changes another distracting stimuli pulls the infants attention to the side (head turn)
- form an association between different sound and reinforcement
- delay the interesting stimuli and see if the anticipatory looking happens
- anticipatory looking- what does this tell us?
- this tells us that the infant can perceive the sound change
- younger infants are sensitive to phonemic contrasts, older infants lose this ability
73
universal vs. native listeners
- before 6 months (universal listeners)
- starting around 10 months (native listeners)
74
Sodian and Thoermer- eye gaze and touch
Sodian and Thoermer
- 11-months-olds
- Habituation followed by expected and unexpected outcomes
- Actor has two objects in front of them (looking ahead) (cube and pyramid)
- Then the actor looks at one of the objects and touches it (cube)
- Then a curtain goes down
- When the curtain is removed the actor is holding the object they were touching (cube) (expected)
- Other condition they looked at the pyramid but after the curtain is removed they are holding the cube (unexpected)
- Both final positions are identical the only things that is different is the actions that came before
- 11 month olds did look longer when the actor was holding the object that they weren't gazing at
Two other conditions
1. Researcher has only gaze (don't touch)
- Find the same thing
2. Eye gaze and pointing
Find the same effect
75
Example: abstractness
- Number representation are abstract
Starkey, Spelke, and Gelman
- 6-8 month old
- Preferential looking time study
- See arrays of 2 and 3 objects, and hear 2 or 3 drum beats
- One modality (visually)
- Another modality (auditory)
Predictions
- If they hear 2 drum beats they expect the infant to look longer at the visual stimuli with a quantity of 2 and vice versa for 3
Results
Predictions were correct
75
Example: comparability and combinability
Example: Wynn
- 5-month-olds
- Infant is placed in a car seat (bolted to a table) looking ahead
- Object placed on the stage (captures infants attention)
- Opaque barrier comes up and view of object is obstructed
- Second object is added
- Possible event: screen comes down and there are two objects
- Impossible event: screen comes down and there is one object
- Or there are two objects placed originally and one is removed
- DV: looking time
- Findings? Conclusions?
They look longer when their expectation is violated (1 object instead of 2)
76
Arguments against core knowledge
- Some theorists/ researchers argue that positing innate core knowledge is not required to account for infants abilities
- parsimony - fewest aspects (simple explanation)
Instead, they argue that infants are equipped with more general abilities (mechanisms) that allow them to acquire knowledge (e.g. for processing perceptual information)
77
representational insight
the knowledge that an entity can stand for something other than itself
77
Judy Deloache- scale model
- Judy DeLoache has investigated young children's ability to use a scale model as a representation of a full-size room
- standard scale model task
- Can the children use the scale model to represent an actual group
- Infants are shown a room
- And then shown the model of the room
- There is a toy (small snoopy and big snoopy)
- Told that wherever little snoopy is in the model, big snoopy is in the big room
- Little snoopy is hidden in the little room and they are asked to find big snoopy in the big room
DV: do they find snoopy in the first place they look
Predictions
- If they understand that the small room represents the big room then they will be able to find little snoopy at first look with no difficulty
Results
- 2 and a half year olds failed
- 3 year old passed
78
Dual representation
to use symbolic artifact, it must be represented mentally in two ways at the same time- as a real object and as a symbol of something other than itself
79
Iconic
Virtue of resemblance (look like what they stand for)
ex. photos, drawings
80
Symbolic
Arbitrarily connected to what it represents
ex. words, dove
81
DeLoache provided support for her claim:
- Putting the model behind a 'window' (child sees the model through a plexiglass, takes away the idea of it being an object itself and more of a representation) children do better at task (2 year olds)
- Letting children play with the scale model (emphasize the object as itself), children do worse at the task (3 year olds)
'credible' shrinking room (gets rid of the need to think of it as a representation), has a magic machine that can make things bigger or small, demonstrates how it works with a troll doll (shows a troll doll small and then larger and vice versa), do the same thing with the scale model and snoopy ---> big room, children preform better (no longer a representation (little room is just the big room)
82
Deloache- pictures as symbols
- presented pictures to 9-19 month olds
- initially touch photos as if they are real objects
19-month-olds realized pictures represent something, started pointing at depeicted objects instead of trying to manipulate them
83
Other types of representations: words
- Children have to learn that words are representations, and that what they stand for is stable
- Researchers holds up a card that says three little pigs and tell the children what it says and tell the children to repeat (done with preliterate words)
- They cover the three and ask the children what it says
Children will often say two little pigs (based on the number of words)
84
Bialystok and Martin
- Participants: 4-year-olds
- Moving forward task
- Do children understand that words in picture books remain stable whether or not they are presented with a picture
- Preliterate children
- Show two images and asked what it is (bee and frog)
- Show a card that say frog, tell the children and then place it under the frog picture
- Then move it under the bee picture
- Then move it back to the frog
- If the child understand the word remains stable they should keep saying the word frog regardless of what image it is placed under
Results
- Children often make the mistake of saying the word says bee when it is under bee
Results? Interpretations?
- They don't understand that words are stable
- Bialystok has also found that 4-5 year olds often expect words and their referents to share properties
- Children are given two pictures and two words
Children often match properties such as word length (length of the word and length of the object in the image)
85
scale errors
difficulty distinguishing real objects from their symbolic representation
ex. trying to put on a toy shoe
86
appearance/reality dsitinction
the knowledge that the appearance of an object does not necessarily correspond to its reality
86
De Vries - Cat/ dog study
- 3-6 year olds are familiarized with a cat named Manard
- cat is fitted with a dog mask
- asked about its identity
- 3 year olds believe its identity changes
- 6 year olds believed it remained stable
87
John Flavell - appearance/ reality
- What does it look like?
- rock, stone
- What is it really?
- squishy thing, sponge
- Ask them what they thought it was originally
- under 4 they say sponge, above 4 they say a rock
- same thing if you ask them what someone else will think seeing it for the first time
- Three-year-olds typically cannot do this
- Candy/ rock example
- red milk example
88
Cacchione, Schaub and Rakoczy- rabbit/ carrot
Participants
- 14-month olds
Method
- Rabbit/ carrot (stuffed animal that can convert from rabbit to carrot)
Two conditions
- Knowledgeable: they are shown the carrot turned into a rabbit and back to a carrot
- Naïve: are not shown
- Box that can be opened from the back and slit that children can use to put their hand in the box
- Shown the rabbit and then put it in the box
- Or shown a rabbit and then it switches to a carrot before it is put in the box (switch is out of view)
- Infant then searches in the box
Results
- Reaching time (how long do they spend searching in the box)
- Children take longer searching in the switch condition when they are in the naïve group
- Children search about the same time in each condition when they are in the knowledgeable group
Interpretation
- They understand that it is the same object that they were looking for
Dual encoding
88
Piaget Core assumptions of his stage theories
- discrete stages
- qualitative changes
- build on each other (progression)
- universality
- unified structure
- schemas
89
Piaget describes two process common to biological (functional invariants)
- Organization: the idea that all intellectual operations are related to one another
- Schemas are not fully independent- they are coordinated
- Organization involves integrating schemas into higher-order units (hierarchically)
- Adaptation: "adjusting one's cognitive structures to meet environmental demands"
- modify understanding based on experience (feedback)
90
action schemas
organized and sequential series of actions
91
Assimilation
Take information from the world and fit it into our pre-existing structures
92
Accommodation
Working to make our structures fit the world
93
Equilibration
"the organism's attempt to keep its cognitive schemes in balance" and to integrate knowledge into a coherent whole
94
State A----> discrepant information ---> disequilibrium
Option A: ignore ---> state A remains unchanged
Option B: assimilate ---> broadly unchanged
Option C: accommodation ----> changes
95
Sensorimotor stage
- birth-2
- some complex problem solving by 18 months, no mental representation
- know the world only by their direct actions on it
96
Substage 1: basic reflexes (birth-1 month)
- Basic reflexes become more adaptive
- sucking is relatively the same regardless of object but becomes more specialized for nutritive sources
97
Substage 2: primary circular reactions (1 to 4 months)
- Behaviours are repetitive (trying to duplicate some earlier positive event)
- Begin to coordinate reflexes (grab and suck)
- Outcome involves self
98
Substage 3: secondary circular reactions (4 to 8 months)
- Outcomes involve the outside world
- No prior intention
99
Substage 4: coordination of secondary circular reactions (8 to 12 months)
- Two or more secondary circular reactions become coordinated
- Goal directed activity (intentional action) --> one circular reaction can be used in the service of another (e.g. move X to get Y)
100
Substage 5: tertiary circular reactions (12 to 18 months)
- Actions still repeated
- Intentional (goal directed) variability in actions and objects (active experimentation)
A lot of learning at this stage is through trial-and-error
101
Substage 6: mental combinations (18 to 24 months)
- Beginnings of representational (symbolic) thought
- Symbolic functioning begins (language, pretend play)
- Deferred imitation possible (delayed)
- Major accomplishment during sensorimotor period: object permanence
102
operations
mentally manipulate things you see
102
Challenge to Piaget's claim that object permanence doesn’t appear before 8 months: Baillargeon
- The motor requirements required for object permanence are creating obstacles for demonstrating object permanence
- Participants: 3.5 and 4.5 month olds
- Method (habituation, violation of expectation)
Habituation event
- Board rotates 180 degrees for both groups
Test events
Impossible event
- Block is placed in the path of the board
- Once the block is out of sight it is removed
- Board does 180 rotation
- We would expect the block to continue to exist even when we can't see, and stop the board from moving
- If the infant has object permanence we would expect them to look longer because it violates their expectation
Possible event
- block is place in the path of the board
- Board rotate to the block (112 degrees) and then comes back (stopped by the block)
- We expect this
- If the infant has object permanence we would expect them to look less time because it is expected
Findings
- infants look longer at the impossible event relative to the possible event
- If they are only habituating to the rotation of the board the possible event should be more interesting because the amount of rotation is different
Interpretation
- Expectation is violated for the impossible event indicating object permanence
- Infants 3.5 to 4.5 months have object permanence (much younger than Piaget believed
Piaget's object permanence task created extraneous demands unrelated to the construct of object permanence
103
conservation
the realization that an entity remains the same despite changes in its form
104
reversibility
the knowledge than an operation can be reversed or that, for any operation, another can compensate for the effects of the first
105
Preoperational stage
- 2-7 years old
- Development during the preoperational period is seen as moving from being focused on their own perspective (egocentric) to becoming more interactive
- This stage is marked by children's ability to use symbols to represent objects and events
106
Spatial perspective taking: the three mountain task
- 3D diorama of three mountains (other things like trees)
- Depending on where you are sitting you see different things (point of view)
- Task is select a photo or describe the scene that matches another's perspective
- Most 4-year-olds fail this task (difficulty describing others perspectives)
- When it is done with photos (reduced memory load) still see the same result (not due to memory capacity)
- Piaget's claim: children can succeed on this task early in the next stage (concrete operational)
- However, 4 year-olds can be successful under some circumstances
107
conservation tasks
- Two glasses with identical amount of liquid, then pour one glass into a narrow glass (children fixate on the height of the liquid and say the narrow glass has more)
- 5 and 5 quarter row, spread one row further apart and children believe the one that is spread out has more
- Give a child one graham crack and you have two (not fair), break their in half (now they think it's fair)
107
Hughs - dolls
- Used more familiar narrative to frame the problem
- Two dolls who were separated by walls and the children are asked to place doll B where doll A could see doll B
- Found that the majority of 3-to 5 year old succeeded on this version
108
Potential reasons for this result other than lack of conservation
- maybe asking the same question twice influences the child to give a different answer
- The difference between how adults define more and how children define more
- May believe that after an experimenter changes something that they are suppose to see a difference
Children do better when:
- Transformation was accidental
- Key question asked once
- Final state is not visible (example narrow beaker is behind a barrier)
109
Concrete operations period
- (7 to 11 years)
- Thinking can now be based on mental operations: "strategies and rules that make thinking more systematic and powerful"
- Understand the operations performed can be reversed (conservation is possible)
- Focus on more than one aspect at a time (decentration)
- Focus is on the real and concrete, not abstract
- Their ability to classify objects is qualitatively different than in during the preoperational period
- Decentration allows for more sophisticated classification --> multiple classification
- Some recent evidence that this is possible at younger ages (more evidence of Piaget's underestimation of young children)
110
Formal operations period
- 12 and on
Formal operational thinkers are capable of
- hypothetical thinking
- abstract thinking (freedom , democracy and time)
- complex thinking (metaphors, sarcasm, and political satire)
- decontextualize
111
decontextualize study
- Rule 1: if you hit a glass with a hammer it will break, Event: Jonny hit a glass with a hammer
- Rule 2: if you hit a glass with a hammer it will break, event: Jonny hit a glass with a feather
- Young children will say the glass broke for the first rule but not the second
- Can't separate prior knowledge (that a feather is soft) with new evidence (the rule)
- However, there is some evidence that children are capable of this kind of thinking at younger ages
112
Evaluating Piaget:
Strengths
- Impact on current research --> his questions are still addressed
Limitations
- Underestimation of children
- Overestimation of adults
- Aspects of development appear more continuous than claimed (not stage like)
- Universality- experiences affect cognitive development (cultural variability)
112
Dias and Harris - fish
- 4 and 6 year old
Two conditions
- Presented matter-of-faculty; versus
- Presented after hearing "let's pretend that I am on another planet.."
All fished live in trees.
Tot is a fish.
Does Tot live in the water?
Results:
- Effect of age (young children tend to rely on prior knowledge)
- Effect of pretending (young children do better when they are told they are pretending)
113
horizontal declage
when childre acquire the concept of conservation for one property and don't realize that the same principle applies to other properties
114
multiple classification
the ability to classify objects simultaneously on two dimensions
115
class inclusion
the knowledge that a class must always be smaller than any more inclusive class in which it is contained
116
seriation
the ability to order objects according to the quantitative dimension of a certain trait
117
transitive inference
ability to infer quantitative relationship between 3 or more elements
118
centration
attend to and make judgment based on the most salient aspect of their perceptual fields
119
decentration
attend to and make decisions based on the entire perceptual field
120
hypothetico-deductive reasoning
the ability to form hypotheses and systematically test them using logic to solve problems
121
inductive reasoning
hypotheses are generated and then systematically tested in experiments
122
reflective abstraction
the process of learning from one's own cognitive operations
123
source monitoring
the awareness of the orgins of one's beliefs
124
causal structure
how does one thing lead to the next
125
Gopnik causal maps
- children develop causal maps based on 2 types of observations
1. their observations of patterns of correlation among events
2. their observations of the effects of intervention or direct manipulation on objects
126
theory theory
the idea that children have intuitive theories about the world that change in ways similar to scientific theory
127
3 oppsing views for how children learn causal maps
1. core-knowledge concepts
2. operant and classical conditioning
3. trial and error or imitative learning
128
Blicket detector
- children are shown a square wooden and plastic box that lights up and plays music when certain objects (blocks) are placed on it
- 3 and 4 year olds
one cause task
- one object placed--> activated
- another object placed (not activated
- both x 2--> activated
- most children identified the first object as the blicket
two cause task
- 1 object x3 --> activated
- other object x3 --> activated once not activated twice
final task
- block placed ---> not activated
- cube placed --> activated --> add block ---> stays activated
- asked to stop the machine
- children in the one-cause task remove only the first object more than the children in the two cause task
129
Fuzzy trace theory
most cognition is intuitive, based on fuzzy representations in combination with construction rules that operate on those representation
- exist on a contiuum from verbatim to fuzzy
130
two forms of output inference
1. scheduling effects: caused by the serial nature of response systems
2. feedback effects
131
information processing theory
Information processing (IP) is a general model of human cognition (cognitive psychology)
- 'mind as computer'
Atkinson and Shiffrin
132
multistore model- Atkinson and shiffrin
- serial
- sensory register
- visual, auditory, haptic
- limited and brief
- STM/ WM
- limited capacity and few
seconds
- rehearsal
- coding
- decisions
- retrieval strategies
- LTM
133
revised model
All components interact
134
declarative
- memory of things we can describe
semantic: facts
episodic: memory of events
135
procedural
memory of how to do something
136
capacity
we can only process so much information information at any single time
137
automatic processes
- occur without intention and without conscious awareness
- does not interfere with practice
- do not improve with practice
- are not influenced by individual differences in intelligence, motivation and education
138
effortful processes
- available to consciousness
- interfere with the execution of other effortful processes
- improve with practice
- influences by individual differences in intelligence, motivation and education
139
executive function
a series of higher-order cognitive abilities that allow us to control and regulate our own thinking and behaviours
140
articulatory loop
verbal information
141
visuospatial sketchpad
visual information
142
4 domains of WM
1. capacity
2. strategies
- chunking
- rehearsal
3. speed of processing
4. atomization
143
Central executive
a component of working memory that acts as a supervisory system to control and regulate cognitive processes
144
Hot ef
motivational or emotional tasks
- Problem solving that is influence by motivation
- Automatic
- Affective/ emotional
- Top-down processing
145
Cold efs
neutral or abstract tasks
- Problem solving that is not influenced by motivation
- Cognitive/ neutral
- Slower (RT measured)
- Bottom-up processing
146
examples of planning tasks
Truck loading task
- Invites in coloured envelopes that correspond to house colours (delivering letters)
Tower of Hanoi
- Moving rings from one peg to another
- No big rings on top of smaller rings
Only move one at a time
147
examples of inhibition tasks
Stroop task
- Colour words presented in different colours
- Say the colour of the words
- Inhibit the automatic response to say the word
Young children Stroop task
- Black and white squares
- Say black when you see white
- Say white when you see black
Have to inhibit the automatic response to say the actual colour of the tile
- Tapping task
- Opposite task
- Simon says
148
Rational Snacking
- 3 - 5 year olds
- Two conditional vs. unreliable
Which condition had a longer wait time?
- Reliable condition
Mean wait time:
- Unreliable: ~3 minutes
- Reliable ~12 minutes
Proportion waited full 15 minutes
- Unreliable 1/14 waited
- Reliable: 9/14 waited
149
Delay choice task
- 3 and 4 year olds
- 1 sticker now or 2 later
- 1 sticker now or 2 later
- 1 sticker now or 4 later
- 1 sticker now or 5 later
- 3 year old were almost never more likely to wait (later option), chose immediate choice
- 4 year olds were more likely to choose later reward especially as reward increased
150
memory span
measure the number of unrelated ites, that can be recalled in exact order
151
span of aprehension
the amount of information people can extract from a passively held store
152
Nelson Cowan- span of apprehension
first graders, fourth graders and adults
- heard series of digits over headphones while playing a computer game
asked to recall most recently presented digits in order
- capacity of auditory sensory store
- average span of apprehension was about 3.5 for adults, 3 for fourth and 2.5 for first
- sensory storage is what underies age differences in the capacity of the STM
153
reconstitution
the creation of novel, complex goal directed behaviours
Cognitive Development
flashcards
Decks in class (3)
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