1
Q
Mischel’s Marshmallow test of self-control (1960s)
What was learned: 3 things
A
Self-control; delayed gratification; strategies for coping with long wait
2
Q
Marshmallow test results long-term
A
Predicted success later in life
Wide variety of positive measures across four decades
3
Q
Emotion
A
- Neural and physiological responses to environment, subjective feelings, cognitions related to those feelings, and the desire to take action
4
Q
Components of emotion (Izard, 2010)
A
- Neural
- Physiological
- Subjective feelings
- Emotional expressions
- Desire to act
5
Q
Discrete Emotions Theory
A
Proposes that emotions are innate and evolved with humans
6
Q
Basic functions of emotions
A
- Relationship between self and environment
- Goal driven
- Occurs most often at subconscious level
7
Q
Behavioural methods of measuring emotions
A
Approach/avoidance
Facial expressions
8
Q
Physiological methods of measuring emotions
A
- Brain changes (EEG)
- Heart rate
- Sweating
9
Q
Six Basic Emotions (Discrete emotions theory)
A
- Happiness and sadness
- Anger and fear
- Surprise and disgust
10
Q
Milestones of emotion
A
Social smile 6-7 weeks
Fear of strangers 5-8 months
Separation distress 7-14 months
Social referencing 9-10 months on
11
Q
Happiness
A
Smiling, social smiles, laughter, expression of child happiness, humour development
12
Q
First discernable negative emotion
A
Distress
13
Q
Surprise
A
Involves cognitive understanding, tends to be brief
14
Q
Disgust
A
Theorised to have evolutionary basis
15
Q
Self-conscious emotions
A
Sense of self and consciousness of others’ reactions to us
16
Q
Guilt
A
Involves feelings of remorse and regret, and desire to undo consequences of behaviour
17
Q
Shame
A
- Self-focus, personal failure
- Associated with self-worth
18
Q
Social significance of emotions leads to:
A
Social competence
19
Q
Emotional contagion
A
Shows in very early infancy, contagious crying and facial mimicry
20
Q
Emotion Discrimination (when and what)
A
Happy, surprise, anger - 3mos
Fear, sadness, anger, interest - 7mos
21
Q
Evidence for Emotion recognition
A
Looks to more happy faces, match emotion in face and voice, show social referencing by 1y
22
Q
When do they use emotion to make choices
A
16-18mos
23
Q
What happens to children’s ability to read emotions in certain environments
A
With violence or without trusted adults, may heighten awareness of emotional cues or conflict.`
24
Q
Display rules
A
Social group’s informal rules about when, where, and how much one should show emotions vs. suppressing or masking them
25
Advances in display rules linked to:
Increases in cognitive capacities
26
Emotion regulation
Set of conscious/unconscious processes to monitor and modulate emotional experiences and expressions
27
Co-regulation
Caregiver providing needed comfort or distraction to help child reduce their distress
28
Social competence
Ability to achieve personal goals in social interactions while maintaining positive relationships
29
Child emotions influenced by (4 items)
- Quality of parent-child relationships
- Parents' emotional expression
- Parents' reactions to children's emotions
- Teaching display rules
30
Describe the still face paradigm
Mothers play with (4mo) infants, engage in still neutral face for 2 minutes, then return to normal play
31
Still face paradigm findings
Infants show decrease in looking to mother, increase in positive affect, emotional distress, and baseline in reunion
32
Emotion socialisation
Process through which children acquire values, standards, skills, knowledge and behaviours appropriate for their present and future roles in their culture
33
Temperament
Individual differences in emotion, activity level, and attention
34
Features of temperament
Consistency across situations and relative stability
- Present from infancy
- Genetically based
- Influenced by environment
- Nature/nurture, individual differences
35
Attachment relationship
Emotional bond with a special person that endures across space and time
36
Behaviourist approach to attachment relationship
Infant mother bond is classically conditioned as mother provides nourishment
37
Harlow's approach to attachment relationship
Attachment develops due to sense of security from mother
38
Attachment theory
Bowlby's work, positing that children are biologically predisposed to be attached for their own survival
39
Secure base
Presence of trusted caregiver provides infant/toddler with sense of security, that makes it possible to explore the environment
40
Bowlby's attachment theory FUNCTIONS
Maintain proximity and ensure survival, develop feelings of emotional security, effectance, reciprocity, trust, secure base, co-regulation
41
Child's mental representation of attachment
Self, attachment figures, relationships in general
42
Unavailable/unresponsive attachment figures
| Outcome
Negative perceptions of relationships with others and themselves
43
Attachment measurement
Strange situation
44
Strange situation key factors
Extent of infant's use of primary caregiver as secure base
Infant's reaction to brief separations and reunions with caregiver
45
Strange situation procedure
2 separations, 2 reunions, 3 interactions with stranger
46
Rated behaviours in strange situation (4)
1. Seeking closeness with parent
2. Resistance or avoidance of parent
3. Interactions with stranger
4. Use of languages/gestures
47
Strange situation attachment styles
Secure (50%)
Insecure/avoidant (15%)
Insecure/Resistant Ambivalent (10%)
48
Disorganised/disoriented
Confused or contradictory coping mechanisms, goes to parent reluctantly
49
How is internal working model tested in infants
Show a play where there are two outcomes: where mother returns (responsive) or not (unresponsive)
50
Temperament
Individual differences in emotion, activity level, and attention
51
Determinants of temperament
Heritability, teratogens, parental behaviours, influence of child on environment
52
Goodness of fit (temperament)
Degree to which temperament is compatible with the demands and expectation of the social environment
53
Differential susceptibility
Circumstance in which the same temperament characteristic that puts some children at high risk for negative outcomes in a harsh home environment leads them to blossom in a positive home environment
54
Between persons temperament measurement categories (Thomas and Chess)
Easy, difficult, slow to warm up
55
Within person approach to temperament measurement, 5 dimensions
Fear, distress/anger/frustration, attention span, activity level, smiling and laughter
56
3 types of data for within person approach to temperament measurement
Physiological measures, parent report (IBQ), lab observational data
57
Attachment relationship
Emotional bond with a special person that endures across space and time
58
Behaviourist approach to attachment
Infant-mother bond is classically conditioned as the mother provides nourishment
59
Harlow's approach to attachment
Attachment develops due to sense of security with mother
60
Bowlby's attachment theory functions (4 functions)
Maintain proximity, secure base, co-regulation, feelings of emotional security, effectance, reciprocity, trust
61
Bowlby's attachment theory outcome
Internal working model of what a relationship can/should be
62
Child's mental representation of attachment
Self, attachment figures, relationships in general
63
How attachment is measured
Strange situation
64
3 types of Classic attachment
Secure, Insecure/avoidant, insecure resistant/ambivalent
65
4th type of attachment
Disorganised/disoriented
66
Secure
| Behaviour from infant during strange situation
Uses mom as secure base, wary but not distressed at stranger
67
Insecure/avoidant
Too independent, no wariness of strangers, no reaction when mom leaves or returns
68
Insecure resistant/Ambivalent
| Behaviour from infant during strange situation
Very clingy (does not explore), distressed when mom leaves but ambivalent upon return
69
Disorganised/disoriented
Confused/contradictory coping mechanisms
70
Parental sensitivity
Caregiving behaviour that involves expression of warmth and contingent responsiveness to children
71
Mothers of securely attached infants
Generally, respond warmly to their children and are sensitive to their needs
72
Mothers of insecure-resistant infants
Inconsistent in early caregiving, often highly anxious and overwhelmed, emotionally unavailable
73
Mothers of disorganised/disoriented infants
Sometimes exhibit abusive, frightening, or disoriented behaviour, maybe unresolved loss or trauma
74
Genetic predisposition for attachment styles
Allelic variant of serotonin-transporter gene
75
Morality (5 domains)
Care and harm, fairness, loyalty, authority, purity
76
Moral sentimentalism
argues morality is discovered through emotions and internal feelings rather than reason
77
Moral judgement
Morality of behaviour is based partly on conscious intentions and goals
78
2 stages of Piaget's moral judgement
Heteronomous morality, Autonomous morality
79
Critique of Piaget's moral judgement
Underestimation of young children's understanding of intentionality
80
Features of Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning
Discontinuous and hierarchical
81
Conscience
Integral regulatory mechanism that increases individual’s ability to conform to standards of conduct accepted in their culture
82
Conscience at 13-19 mos
Recognise good and bad
83
Conscience at 19 mos
Can USE good and bad
84
Conscience at age 2
Recognise moral standards, exhibit guilt
85
Conscience at 30mos
Use good and bad for moral scenarios
86
Prosocial behaviour
Voluntary behaviour intended to benefit another
87
3 actions of prosocial behaviour
helping, sharing, comforting
88
Empathy
Emotional response to another’s state or condition
89
Sympathy
Feeling of concern for another in response to their state or condition
90
When does helping emerge by
14mo
91
Helping is
Goal directed behaviour
92
Sharing is
Relational
93
Comforting requires
Empathy
94
Cooperation may be....
- Driven by sympathy and sense of fairness
-May have evolved (not seen in chimps)
95
Origins of prosocial behaviour
Biological/evolutionary factors, genetic factors, socialisation
96
4 ways of socialisation (prosocial behaviour)
Modelling and teaching, arranging opportunities, Disciplining children, peer influences
97
Modelling and teaching
Imitate helping and sharing of parents and sometimes strangers
98
Arranging opportunities
Household tasks, community service and activities, predicts prosocial values
99
Discipline
Authoritative parenting associated with prosocial behaviour, authoritarian associated with not prosocial behaviour
100
Peer influences
Aids in learning about fairness, justice, reciprocity, conflict resolution
101
RAD Inhibited/emotionally withdrawn
Extreme social withdrawal and emotional detachment
102
RAD disinhibited/indiscriminate
Inappropriate, indiscriminate friendliness, poor social boundaries
