1
Q
Pythagoras idea of physiognomy
A
Implit theory of personality we he claimed dispositions follow body characteristics and “face is a window on the psyche”
2
Q
Greek Astrologers idea of personality
A
Peoples personalities could be divined in a number of different ways
* We can look to when people were born to work out what their character was
3
Q
Hippocrates pillars of temperament
A
Personality differences come from fluids in our body. Hot/cold, dry/wet
4
Q
Galen the four humours
A
Personality results from balance of these four fluids that hippocrates proposed
o Excess of Blood = sanguine
o Excess of Black bile = melancholic
o Excess of Yellow bile = choleric
o Excess of Phlegm = phlegmatic
5
Q
Christian Thomasius
A
The first personality survey
6
Q
Lavater Essays on Physiognomy
A
Something about our interval characteristics determines our dispositions
o Sanguine = Cheerful (or red!)
o Melancholic = Unhappy
o Choleric = Bad tempered
o Phlegmatic = Calm
- Linked different facial arrangements to Galens personality types to different traits
7
Q
Kant building of four humours
A
Worked out what the characteristics that go along with
the excess of certain things Can make the argument that personality types can be thought of as 2 dimensional (but wasn’t made yet)
8
Q
Wundt building on Kant
A
He said we can characterize these as strong
emotions and weak emotions, and unchangeable temperaments
and changeable temperaments
9
Q
Francis Galton
A
Went through the dictionary to build comprehensive list of prospective personality characteristics… And discovered correlation
analysis along the way…
10
Q
Idea of personality in the 1900’s before Allport
A
Personality’ isn’t a focus.
* Instead, ‘character’ tends to be what people talk about, and it’s not the province of psychology, unless it’s clinical
psychology.
11
Q
Eysenck
A
Similar to Wundts dimensions, keeps stable vs unstable but changes strong and week to intro/extroverted.
12
Q
The three basic parts of personality eysenck argued…
A
Argues there are three basic parts
1. Neuroticism
2. Introversion
3. Psychoticism - mean vs nice
13
Q
Raymond Cattell and factor analysis
A
- Is a fantastic tool for looking at things like the structure of personality from the data up, rather than top down like it had been
14
Q
Freud’s Topographic Model
A
- Conscious
o What did you have for breakfast? You can answer that pretty quick and easy - Preconscious
o Who was your form room teacher when you were 11? You have to stop and think about this one - Unconscious
o Don’t have access to this
o His structural model says that when we look at these, there are different components operating as part of that
structure - all in the unconscious
15
Q
ID
A
Instinct
§ Infants instincts right after birth
§ I want that $5
16
Q
Ego
A
Reality
§ Handbrake on the Id
§ No you shouldn’t go for that, wait till no one is looking
17
Q
Super ego
A
Morality
§ Internalisation of expectations that important other in society has of us
§ But that is theft, you shouldn’t do it
18
Q
Triebe
A
Drives and instincts - the primary drives are libido and thanatos
19
Q
- Tension reduction
A
Frustration aggression hypothesis - there is no instance where people get angry and aggressive that is not
preceded by frustration
o By acting aggressively we are cathartic - catharsis is the tension reduction that comes from blurting it all out
o This is why we like watching boxing - it lets us let out our subconscious aggression
20
Q
Freuds 6 defence mechanisms
A
Repression
Sublimation
Denial
Reaction Formation
Intellectualisation
Projection
21
Q
Oral stage
A
(0 - 18 months)
o Everything goes in babies mouths
22
Q
Anal stage
A
e (18 months - 3 years)
o Toilet training
o You can develop an anal retentive personality if your toilet training experience is punitive (punished for missing
potty or not making it in time) - so you can become tightly wound, uptight personality
o Or if your parents go overboard in rewarding you, you can develop anal expulsive personality - they will not shut
up
23
Q
Phallic stage (3 - 6 years)
A
Everything is about competing for love of parents and fear about consequences if we are caught fighting for love
of parents
24
Q
Latency stage (6 years - puberty)
A
If go to playground and watch these ages interact, it is girls vs boys
25
Freud's theory of Humour
Jokes about death and dying should be funniest to old people - Because they are the ones closest to death and dying so that is how they deal with the tension and fear of knowing this
- Jokes as a way to relive tensions in our unconsious
25
Genital stage (post puberty)
o Now boys and girls come together, but in a different way, obsessed with sex
26
How do we access the unconsious
- Dreams
- Projective tests (rawshark = more indicator of mood, more evidence for thematic apperception test)
- Free association
- Hypnosis
- Symbolic behaviour
27
According to Freud, the answers to a personality or behaviour are largely:
* Hot, sweet and dark, buried in unconscious
* In the past
* Unavailable to us without therapy
* Outside of our individual control
28
Criticisms of freuds psychoanalysis
It was not revolutionary
* It was not testable - the unconscious cannot be tested
* It was not realistic that personality is fixed by around age 6 - research suggests 14-16
* It over emphasis and instincts and ignores culture and environment
* Has a negative pessimistic time, not consistent with what we observe in real world
29
Neofreudians
Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Karen Horny and their humanistic perspectives
30
Carl Jung
The collective unconscious, Primordial images and Archetypes. Extroversion (he coined this idea)
31
Collective unconsious, archetypes and religion
o We are not born with just this instinctive things that drive survival, we are also born with the collective
unconscious that includes primordial images and archetypes, This is why if you look at artistic works across time and religion, there is a repetition of a bunch of images, this is
because they are a manifestation of this unconscious
32
Carl jung and pyschological types
Introversion "There is a whole class of men who at ... a given situation at first draw back a little as if
with an invoiced 'no,' and only after that are able to react"
* Extroversion "…And there is another class who, in the same situation, come forward with an immediate
reaction, apparently confident that their behaviour is obviously right."
33
Carl jung and four basic functions
Irrational (sensation, intuition) - reflecting perception, the way we see things
* Rational (thinking, feeling) - reflecting reason and judgement, the way we deliberate and make decisions
- Similar to Myers Briggs test (which were fans of allport and built test from this)
34
Problems with Jungs ideas of types
It is theoretically derived - it is based on Jung's view of how people are, if he is
wrong/incomplete, what comes out the other end will be wrong/incomplete
§ It has limited predictive power - it is not accurate in predicting how you will behave
§ Early argument that it is a psychological type - you are either extrovert or introvert, which
doesn’t make sense, it is a scale, rather than fitting you into boxes
* So they say it is a type indicator
35
Strengths of Jungs ideas of types
It introduced the introvert/extrovert distinction which is part of our contemporary theories of
understanding of personality
36
Alfred Adler
- Disgreed with freud (negative, lack of cultural influences)
- Superiority complexs, and birth order
37
* Striving for superiority ("inferiority complexes")
- Alfred Adler, we are driven towards being good at what we do and value
When we fail to achieve that superiority we can develop pathological inferiority complexes because of our failure
to live up to what we want for ourselves or what other people want from us
38
Parental ifnluences according to alfreds adler idea of superiority
Parents want certain things for their kids and they can potentially instill aspirations that are inappropriate for that
person
o Striving for superiority in that way will be unsuccessful leading to the tension that leads to inferiority complexes
39
Birth order and alfred adler
Order of birth in your family is important for the nature of your personality.second child, The middle child, will be more successful because they have the initial parental input but
need to fend for themselves
There is research which suggests BO might be important, but not in the way Adler predicted
o A lot of famous politicians are typically first borns
40
Karen horny
Rejected freuds ideas
41
Karen Horny and neurosis
(comes about as product of our unconscious) can manifest as
o Moving towards people - putting ourselves out there for others
* Done to extreme = clingy
o Moving against people - undermine others
o Moving away from people - move ourselves away from people entirely
* Go live in a cave = people are not happy with that
42
Feminine psychology, karen horny, and womb envy
Womb envy
* Men don’t have a womb so can never bear children
* Women, while not all do, have the capability (with some exceptions)
o Frustration at unequal treatment
* Men are seen as superior
43
Research on aggression as "catharsis"?
Aggression is not cathartic
o If some of our behaviour is designed to achieve catharsis (release of tension) then we can see things of like
warfare and watching boxing as a form of catharsis but the evidence does not support this
o If a black boxer beats a white boxer, you see an increase in aggression
o We don’t see the same thing if the white boxer beats the black boxer
44
Research on attachment
Attachment is important
o Parents as important attachment objects
o Attachment is important as children AND adults because we learn templates for relationships and whether we can
rely on people through those early childhood experiences
45
Erich Fromm
* Argues that one of the overwhelming drives we have is to feel secure and comfortable (escape from freedom is his books)
46
Erich Fromm, mechanisms of escape
Overwhelmed with free will and freedom. Three mechanisms to escape
- Authoritarianism (follow strong leaders)
- Destructiveness (burn it all down)
- Automation conformity (slow into structured rhythm of life so no freak out about making own decisions)
47
Viktor Frankl
Often talked about in resilience
* Wrote a book while he was in a concentration camp describing the way different people behave when put
into situations where they have NO control over their lives
* The people who survived and thrived were pope who sought to make meaning in their existence
48
Logotherapy
all about helping people to develop a mature approach to their lives and emphasizing the
freedom to chose the best life that does have emptiness, anxiety and boredom
49
Existential Philosophy questions and focus
What is the meaning of existence?
* The role of free will?
* The uniqueness of the human being?
Often focuses on resolving existential anxiety.* Emphasising freedom to choose a life that has less emptiness, anxiety, boredom
50
Principles of the Humanistic Approach:
- Personal responsibility (humans as active shapers, whereas freduians say its all down below)
- Importance of present moment
- Phenomenoloy of the individual (world as YOU view it)
- Personal growth - self actualisation (maslow), fully functioning (rogers)
51
Self disclosue according to sidney jourard
Someone will open up, and we tend to respond - sharing something about ourselves with others, this is
the foundation of trust
* If you do not disclose to others, you cannot be a fully functionally human as you are hiding parts of
yourself
52
Carl Rogers idea of three versions of ourselve s
We are unhappy when we experience incongruence between these different aspects of self (perceived, real,and ideal)
Unconditional positive regard can relieve this incongruence
53
Q-sort
Humanism tried to present testable ideas (unlike freud) witht he q-sort assessment which is a forced-choice distribution task in which clients describe their real and ideal selves.
* Client sorts attributes into piles for real self, and then their ideal self.
* Rogers could then correlate the congruence over time, showing that clients real and ideal selves increasingly correlated
54
more modern take on different selves: E. Tory Higgins (1987)
Three 'selves'
o Actual (how I am)
o Ideal (how I want to be)
o Ought (who I should be)
If they all overlap perfectly = happy
o Discrepancy between actual and ideal = depressed
o Discrepancy between actual and ought = anxious
55
Person-centered therapy (humanist perspective)
The therapists role isn't to change the client, its to create a space where a client can work out answers for themselves -
they do this by providing a context for self-disclosure
* Part of this is reciprocity, so the therapist actually also discloses things about themselves
56
Trait & Biological perspectives on Personality
Maslow, Harlow, Sheldon, Allport
57
hierarchy of needs - maslow
Psychological needs, safety, love and belonging, esteem, self actualisation.
The higher levels are predicated on
satisfying the lower needs
o But there are people who suggest
otherwise, just by looking at them
At any one time, as we move down the
hierarchy, we can assume more popple
have these needs satisfied
58
Two basic motives of achieving needs according to maslow
Deficiency (satisfaction upon attainment)
a. I need more money, I need a house
2. Growth needs (satisfaction through expression)
a. Expressing love for other
59
Harlow's monkeys
and hierachy of needs
If you give infant primate a choice between a 'mother' who is just wire, but gives food, and a 'mother' that is cloth but
doesn’t give food, they cloth the cloth 'mother'
o Shows there is something about safety and security
60
Maslow's study of psychologically happy people. They...
* accept themselves, and admit their weaknesses
* less bound to cultural norms, they express themselves
* display self-actualizing creativity... (enculturalization) innovative in the way they approach the world
* peak experiences - fully absorbed by what you are doing
61
Criticisms of Maslows heirachy of needs
If it all comes down to free will, is there space for predicting behaviour?
o If this is the characteristics of self-actualised people, that doesn’t sounds like freewill, sounds like determined
* Poor definition of key concepts
o Hard to operationalise and measure
62
Type versus trait
Type - I am an independent person
* Trait - I am studious, zealous, friendly (everyone may vary)
63
What does the trait approach seek to do
The trait approach seeks to identify types of traits that can be used to understand and predict behaviour
64
Sheldon's (1942) "Constitutional Psychology" - "somatypes"
Endomorph - larger body, slow moving, complacent
* Mesomorph - sporty physic, competitive, energetic
* Ectomorph - Self-conscious, restrained
65
Gordon Alport contributions to trait approach of personality
He identified 4,000 adjectives in the English language alone
that describes personality
* Minimized role of unconscious, and believed the only way to
understand personality is to study normal people, rather than
outliers/pathological cases
* The challenge is to combine in some usable structure all these
different ways we think about personality - hence the quest for
types that could then be described using traits
66
Problems with types
Assumes each of us fit into one personality category, and that others in that category are basically alike
* Assume the behaviour of people in one category is distinctly different from the behaviour of people in other categories
67
Personality as Trait Dimensions - how to identify trait
First have to identify a trait that can be represented as different points on a continuum - people differ in levels of this trait
* Assume that if we measure enough people, and we typically find a normal distribution - some people at the extremums
but most in the middle
eg., disgust
68
Assumptions of the Trait Approach to Personality
Characteristics are
- Stable over time
- Stable over situations
- Vary between people
69
What is a trait
As a dimension of personality used to categorize people in terms of the extent to which they manifest a particular
characteristic. We should expect to see people will endorse that trait at its extremes
70
State and trait level dispositions
E.g. anger - can be chill sometimes, but not right now
* So you can have a treat level anger that is inconsistent with your state level anger
o You would expect that trait level will be consistent but not state level
* "and it is the constant portion we seek to designate with the concept of trait." (1961)
71
Nomothetic approach
identification, measurement and description of common traits across individual
72
Ideographic approach
identification of the unique combinations of traits that count for an individuals personality
73
Cardinal, central, and secondary traits after coming up with words with a friend
- 5 that you and friend came up with = primary traits
- 5 that you came up with alone (ascribe to yourself) = secondary traits
- Traits that keep coming up among multiple pairs (seen widespread) = cardinal
74
Raymond Cattell
* Spearmen developed Factor Analysis, Cattell refined this
o We develop crystallized intelligence through fluid intelligence
Developed 16PF
75
16 PF
Through questionnaires, catell said we have 16 primary personality traits
- There was a LOT of info here and a lot of people said its wrong, and they cannot be independent
76
How did 16PF decide to greate second order factors.
n rather than taking the
individual items that we use to characterize people as reserved or outgoing, instead, take peoples scored for the reserved
vs outgoing trait, along with their other scores, and we factor analyze those. So the data is no longer the individual items,
it is the scale scores that come from putting these individual items together
- found 5 factors
77
Eysenck and the 4 humour personalities
Used factor analysis to test wundts dimensions and identified an additional dimension (psychoticism)
78
Allport and Eysenck biological basis of personality
He argues that your level of extroversion is a reflection of the part of your physiology which is associated with
social and physiological arousal
o Extroverts need more going on in the world to get the response an introvert would get for much less arousal
o So, with the lemon juice demo in class, extroverts will produce less saliva because they all had the same amount
of lemon juice, to get the same amount of saliva, the extroverts will need more lemon juice
79
DeYoung et al., 2011 linking OCEAN to brain regions
He puts people into MRI and
measures the size of these parts of
the brain
o Generally there is support for
this, the only one we don’t find is
openness
* So there is reason to think that there is a
difference in brain volume in areas that
are theoretically associated with 4 out of
5 of the big five
Ectroversion = Nucleus accumbens, orbitofrontal cortex
Neuroticism = Amygdala
80
Personality over the lifespan OCEAN
* Generally see people get more introverted as they get older
* From about 19, agreeableness drops then plateau
* Conscientiousness is something you get better at as you get older (one of the most marked increase) plateau at about 50
* Neuroticism declines, people tend to be more neurotic when they are younger, lower in emotional stability
* People become less open to experience as they get older
* Honesty and humility increases as you get older
81
Criticisms of trait/type appraoch
What do these factors mean?
* What is the role of language? Culture?
* How many factors? (Eysenck's three, Hexaco, Big Seven?) Are the factors correctly 'named"?
* It's atheoretical - maybe they've arisen through adaptation, or have neurological substrates, but those are predictions that
post-date the development of the structure.
82
The person situation debate
Trait measures do not predict behaviour particularly well
* Correlations between personality traits and behaviour are rarely > ~.30 or .40 (~10% of the variance in
peoples behaviour can be accounted for by personality)
* Limited evidence of cross-situational consistency
o Says personality psychology is at best over blown, at best misguided
83
Responses to the person situation debate
The absurdity of claiming no consistency (we see in our own lives that people tend to behave relatively similarly)
* Aggregating data - reliability of behavioural measures
o small correlation between extraversion and social contacts on any one day may be low, but strong when looking
at combined interactions over two weeks.
* Identification of relevant traits - Allport's centrality
* The importance of 10% of the variance
* Person-by-situation interactionism
o See this in the Milgram study
84
Julian Rotter ideas
While the true behaviorist account of personality might be that everything we do is a product of our learning experiences
- such as conditioning and shaping,
* He took this idea and extended it
* Our behaviour in a particular situation is the product of acting on a behavioral tendency
85
Julian Rotter behavioural tendency =
Expectancy + Reinforcement Value
o This is not all about environment, expectancy is about the person, there is something going on inside us
86
* Locus of control:
we can vary in the extent to which we see the things that happen to us as within or outside of our
control
o People who have a an internal locus of control are more likely to see things that happen to them as within their
control, caused by their own behaviour.
People who have a an external locus of control are more likely to see things that happen to them as outside their
control, it is fate
- More likely to enjoy games of chance
87
Reciprocal Determinism
External factors (such as rewards or punishments) influence behaviour and the behaviour impacts on the external
factors like the frequency of which rewards or punishments are likely to occur
o Internal factors (such as beliefs, thoughts or expectancies) influence behaviour and the behaviour impacts on the
external factors like the frequency of which rewards or punishments are likely to occur
o The external and internal factors also have a reciprocal relationship
88
* Self-Efficacy
Outcome expectation: extent of belief that actions will lead to a particular outcome
* If I do this, this will happen
o Efficacy expectations: extent of belief that a person can bring about a particular outcome
* If I do study, I can influence my outcome on the test
* Only works if I think I have the capacity
89
Efficacy expectations come from
* Performance accomplishments
* Vicarious experience
* Verbal persuasion
* Emotional arousal
90
Criticisms of behavioural models of personality
Narrow conceptualization of personality ( reduce us to reinforce/punished people - proof that some of the things we do CANNOT be the byproduct of reinforcement and punishment, ie., language acquisition)
o Inadequate consideration of heredity
o Limits of conditioning
o Humans are more complicated than animals
* Effects of extrinsic reinforcers on intrinsically motivated behaviours
91
Personal construct theory George A. Kelly
**we have an accumulation of knowledge that comes from interacting with certain people that leads us to behave in certain ways
**
* "Our personality (the consistency of our behaviour over time and context) is a reflection of our 'personal constructs' the templates through which we understand the world"
92
The 'man-as-scientist'
We move through the world testing our versions of expectations about how the world is going to work
93
How did george kellys cognitive conceptualisation of personality dismiss freudian and behaviourist idea
Dismissed Freudian idea that behaviour motivated by the unconscious.
* Instead, we want to understand the world, and the past is important only inasmuch as it shapes our
personal constructs and expectancies.
Dismissed the behaviourist idea that our behaviour is controlled by the environment
* two people can have similar personalities (i.e. they construe the world in similar ways) without having
had the same experiences.
94
Schemas - as a cognitive structure
Are hypothetical cognitive structures that help us perceive, organize, process and use information.
* Are updateable
* Are relatively stable ways of seeing and using information about the world, thus the relative stability of individual
differences in behaviour
* This is why personalities are stable
95
Self-schemas as cog structure
"Cognitive generalizations about the self, derived from past experience, that organize and guide the processing of relevant
information." (Markus, 1977)
* Can incorporate traits, which in turn will be used when processing the world
* If I ask you if you're an independent person, and you have to stop to think about it, that's a sign that you don't have a welldefined schema for 'independence'
96
Possiblse selves and their function
1. Incentivise future behaviour
2. Help to interpret our behaviour and experiences.
97
Examples of schemas - cognitive theory
Gender - A person who is 'sex typed' will process information in terms of gender
Depression - Depressive cognitive triad (negative thoughts about oneself, pessimistic bout the future, tend to interpret
experiences negatively), Maybe because they have a depressive schema
98
Prototypes
* Are the mental representations of something that we perceive as representative of a given category
* The more similar a candidate is to the prototype for a given category the more likely we shall process it as a member of
that category
99
Strengths of cognitive conceptualisation of personality
Most of the cognitive structures proposed have been subject to extensive empirical support.
* Takes the trait approach further to explain why people demonstrate similar or different personality characteristics.
100
Criticisms of cognitive approach
Concepts are often vague.
* Parsimony - do we need cognitive concepts to account for behaviour?
* Not clear that there is yet a consensus cognitive model of personality.
* Methods for assessing constructs are primarily descriptive
101
A review on all 5 approaches to personality
Freuds = not widely followed but great early target
Humanism = more likely to be taught in sociology
Traits = alive and dominant (and research on biology continues)
Behaviourism - lost relevance, environment important but not solely
102
Reciprocal determinism
- Its not as simple as environment = behaviour (Because our behaviour changes the way the enviornment works and how we undertssnad it)
- 3 factors:
○ Rewards/punishments (External factors)
○ Beliefs, thoughts, expectancies (Internal factors)
And our behaviour
103
What is a personality disorder?
* "..enduring patterns of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the environment and oneself that are exhibited in a wide
range of social and personal contexts…
* These enduring patterns differ markedly from the expectations of the individual's cultural group and can cause significant
personal distress and impairment in functioning..."
* Personality is complex and, often, a person's behaviour can be quite disturbed in one area (e.g., close relationships) but
not in other domains (e.g., work).
104
Three core features of personality disorders
Functional inflexibility (fixed patterns), self-defeating patterns of behaviour, unstable functioning in state of stress
105
DSM-IV was broken down into clusters of personality problems
Cluster A
- Paranoid
- Schizoid (withdrawall)
- Schizotypal (sublinical schizophrenia)
Cluster B
- Antisocial (agress)
- Borderline (emotional instability)
- Histronic (hysteria)
- Narcissistic
Cluster C
- Avoidant
- Dependent
- Obsessive compulsive
106
Why are personaloity disorders hard to treat
time consuming and difficult to treat because they require people to unlearn lifelong
patterns of behaviour
107
* Are personality disorders quantitatively or qualitatively distinct
The DSM-5 offers it both ways
o Says that if this person meets the criteria you can put them in this box
o But also provide guidelines on how to evaluate severity of that personality disorder which is a continua
108
Taxon
(a type - if something is taxonomically different, it comes from an entirely different box - e.g. birds or
mammals)
109
Continua
a combination of things that vary in the amount you have of each
110
PCA of the DAPP-BQ gi en to clincial sample gen pop, and UBC twins
This provides evidence that personality pathology is an extreme version of something that has manifested in the general
population - same patterns found
111
Livesly and colleagues idea of personality disorders and 4 traits/combinations
- Emotional dysregultion
- Inhibitedness
- Compulsivity
- Dissocial behaviour
o Note that we are not getting openness here - might not be a bad thing
112
Emotional dysregulation
can be called a trans diagnostic factor (meaning get crosses diagnoses)
* Affective instability
* Anxiousness
* Submissiveness
* Insecure attachment
* Cognitive dysregulation
* Social apprehensiveness
* [Big 5 neuroticism]
113
Inhibitedness
* Intimacy problems
* Restricted expression of feelings
* [Big 5 low extroversion]
114
Compulsivity
* Orderliness
* Conscientiousness
* [Big 5 conscientiousness]
115
Dissocial behaviour - behaviour that is not socially appropriate or valued
* Callousness
* Rejecting
* Conduct problems
* Impulsive sensation seeking
* Narcissism or grandiosity
* [Big 5 low agreeableness]
116
Avoidant personality types and big 5
characterised by a combination of high neuroticism (emotional dysregulation)
and low extroversion (Inhibitedness)
117
Antisocial personality types and big 5
characterised by low levels of conscientiousness (Compulsivity)and low levels of
agreeableness (dissocial behaviour)
118
Obsessive compulsive personality types and big 5
characterised by only high levels of conscientiousness (compulsivity)
119
Dependent personalities and big 5
characterised by high neuroticism (emotional dysregulation) and low
agreeableness (dissocial behaviour)
120
Face Validity
The face validity of an instrument is the extent to which the items or content of the test appear to be appropriate for measuring something, regardless of whether they actually are
120
Construct validity
the degree to which a test or instrument is capable of measuring a concept, trait, or other theoretical entity.
- under it are convergent and discriminant validity
121
Convergent validity
the extent to which responses on a test or instrument exhibit a strong relationship with responses on conceptually similar tests
122
Discriminant validity
the degree to which a test or measure diverges from (i.e., does not correlate with) another measure whose underlying construct is conceptually unrelated to it.
123
Validity criterion
assesses a test's effectiveness by measuring how well its results correlate with a recognized external standard or "criterion"
124
Test-retest reliability
a measure of the consistency of results on a test or other assessment instrument over time
125
What does functional inflexibility mean as a core feature of PD
You have fixed patterns of functioning in the world, you find it really difficult to not do something
E.g. you are really introverted and you find it difficult to not behave ways that is inconsistent with that
level of introversion
126
Wilson and Sibbley narcissism & lifespan findings
* People are most narcissistic at age 20
* Women are less narcissistic than men
127
NPI (narcissism personality scale) and TIPI (short big 5 measure)
4 out of the big 5 traits are correlated with narcissism
- Relatively extrovert
- More contentious
- Less agreeable
- More open
128
Put TIPI and NPI into regression
The big 5 explains about 26% of variation in narcissism scores
o Reasonably good
Strongest predictor is extroversion (0.37), agreeableness is further in opposite direction
This shows, narcissists are notably MORE extraverted and LESS agreeable
129
4th element of the dark triad
Sadism
130
Machiavellian Personality - Christie and Geis
Considered a political eprsonality tyoe
Characteristics
- Lack of affect in interpersonal relationships
- Lack of concern for conventional morality
- Lack of gross psychopathologgy
- Low ideological commitment
131
Why are we interested in psychopathy
Predicts re-offending, and Psychopaths
- start younger
- commit more, more violent, and more different kinds of offences
- Spend more time, and behave worse, in prison
- commit more sexual offences against adults and fewer against children
- They are harder to rehabilitate and, in fact, rehabilitation may not work as well
132
Current conceptualisation of psychopathy - Harvey Cleckley
the mask of sanity = there are people walking amongst us that you cannot
tell have something different because they are wearing a mask
133
How did Hervey Cleckley describe psychopaths
Found 16 traits common in psychopathy
for example
1. superficial charm and good "intelligence"
2. Absence of delusions or irrational thinking
3. absence of nervousness
134
What are the three groups of symptoms found for psychpaths
Interpersonal: Arrogant, callous, manipulative
Affective: Shallow, irritable, no remorse
Behavioural: Parasitic, impulsive, irresponsible, breaking rules
135
Bernard Karpman
Suggested the distinction between two different types of psychopathy
136
2 types of psychopathy
Primary
- Dodgy personality and affect
- Nasty and in pain
Secondary
- Disorganised lifestyle
- Irrational and impulsive
137
Psychopathy closest relative in DSM
Antisocial personality disorder
- Significant correlation between APD and psychopathy (>.80)
138
Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (CL-R)
- 20 item scale, scores between 0 and 40
- Completed by assessor, based on file and interview
○ Labour intensive
○ Need access to file info not always accessible
30is the US cut off score for deciding who is a psychopath
139
Prevalence of psychopathy>
More common in North America (3-4% for males, 1% of females).
In prisons, 15 to 25% of prisoners.
140
Robert smith measure of psychopthy
Robert Smith proposed a self-report set of questions to identify ppl with psychopathy
- Proposed idea that not all psychopaths end up in prison, so lets find where we can slot them in society
- Resulted in a STRANGE scree plot, little evidence to support this, but his idea of sub-criminal psychopaths lives on
141
Sub-criminal psychopaths
Higher functioning
- Egocentric, callous
- Stay on right side of law
- Succeed at expense of others
- Primary but not secondary psychopathy
142
o Babiak ('95) - research on New York business-psychopaths
* fake CVs
* cultivate useful people
* discredit first those who might discredit them
* get promoted from the chaos they create
Suggests the PCL-R relies too heavily on criminal behaviour to identify people
143
Levenson, Kiehl and Fitzpatrick - another self reported measure of psychopathy
Specifically tap into primary and secondary
- In criminal sample, good correlation with what said on this measure and what clinicans say
144
Correlations between the big 6 and primary and secondary psychopathy
No statistical relationship between extroversion and primary or secondary psychopathy
* Agreeableness is negatively correlated with psychopathy, even more so for secondary
* Not very contentious
* Less open
* Primary psychopathy is uncorrelated with stability, but secondary psychopathy is moderately negatively correlated
* Honesty/Humility notably negatively correlated for both primary and secondary psychopathy
145
Robert Smith - psychology and culture
Proposed psychopahty as an extreme manifestation of values of american culture, said psychopathy was not antisocial but rather "super social"
146
Impression management
the tendency to present ourselves in the way other people expect us to behave (measure of social desirability responding)
- High impression management = lower on psychopathy
147
Mark and Shelly, used measures of self-reported psychopathy and measures of cultural values
Vertical individualism = significantly predicted in psychopathy
Horizontal collectivism = significantly predicted LACK OF psychopathy
148
Machiavellianism and psychopathy
- Psychopathy = forensic, criminal
- Machiavellianism = personal, social
Same thing different name/area
149
Primary and secondary correlation with Machiavellians
Primary psychopathy = .64 correlation
Secondary psychopathy = .46 correlation
150
Correlations within the dark triad
Strong correlation between psychopathy and narcissism
Moderate correlation between psychopathy and Machiavellianism
Weak correlation between Machiavellianism and narcissism
151
Dark triad and cultural values (vert/horiz, indiv/collect)
They found same correlations as Williams and Paulhus
- Found NO relationship between narcissism and secondary psychopathy
- Even higher correlations with primary psychopathy and Machiavellianism
They also found that all four personality types were associated with vertical individualism ideals
- Hierarchical and stratified
Machiavellianism and primary psychopathy were significantly NEGATIVELY correlated with endorsing both horizontal and vertical collectivism ideals
152
RMET
objective measure of emotional recognition
153
RMET AND PSYCHOPATHY
not significantly correlated with secondary psychopathy
- But it IS correlated with primary psychopathy (personal and emotional deficits)
154
Self-reported empathy
- Extent to which we identify with others
- Most common measure is IRI (interpersonal reactivity index, high score = higher empathy)
155
Self reported empathy, RMET and psychpathy
People who score higher on primary psychopathy are less likely to do good on RMET, however they are EVEN less likely to get lower scores on self-reported empathy
- People with primary psychopathy IMAGINE themselves as being less empathic than the actually are
156
What is intelligence
- Its circular, disconfirmation is tricky, and assumes what intelligence tests test is uniform
157
- Meta-cognitive ability
- People vary into their extent to look down on their own thinking (critical reflection)
158
Francis Galton and intelligence
Pioneer in measure of intelligence (framing it as a "human faculty that we all have" , and tried to measure it)
Intelligence is catgeorised by:
- Energy (capacity for labour)
- Sensitivity (perception to changes in environement)
159
How did Galton test intelligence
through psychophysics
- Study of psychological measurement
○ How different to two different weights have to be before you can tell a difference in weight (or rosewater)
- Smart people are perceptive, can DETECT these subtle changes in environment
160
James McKeen Cattell
Found no correlation between peoples scores on psychophysics test and academic pursuits (grades)
161
Two problems with Galtons measuring of intelligence
How do we know we are measuring intelligence if we DON’T KNOW WHAT INTELLIGENCE IS
162
What lessons did Galton teach us about intelligence/the study of it
1. A desire to precisely and quantitatively measure intelligence
2. Set a benchmark for interface between theory and application (does what I measure predict something in the real world)
3. Tendency to conflate scores with personal values (e.g., economic or social)
163
Alfred Binet & IQ
- Contracted to come up with IQ test to identify mentally challenged whildren
- Believed intelligence was not about perception of world, but ability to think
Intelligence as a more complex cognitive process rather than a psychophysical one
164
Intelligence is characterised by three main characteristics (according to Binet)
- Direction (idea of where task leads)
- Adaptation (change what u doing to respond to feedback)
Control (of thoughts, such that you can change direction and adapt)
165
IQ
intelligence quotient (mental age divided by chronological age) - it’s a ratio
166
Who created the Stanford-Binet IQ test
Lewis Terman - took Binets test for children and created this IQ test
It was standardised
- In administration
- In interpretation
167
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
- Suspicious of Stanford-Binet reliance on verbal ability/fluency AND a single score for IQ
Instead, measures a variety of domains (remember, compute, understand language, reason well, process info quickly) - AND get subscales
168
Spearmen and intelligence
Proposed if you give people different task, and factor down scores, there are two types of intelligence
…A general (g) factor common to all tasks, requiring intelligence
…A specific (s) factor unique to different types of task
169
Raymond Cattel and intelligence
2 families
Fluid intelligence (GF)
- Ability to think flexibly/abstractly
Crystalised intelligence (GC)
-Based on our store house of accumulated knowledge
- Novice/experts
170
Howard Garner
Multiple intelligences, said we make a mistake by focusing solely on what goes on inside peoples heads. People process info through different 'channels'
171
Multiple intelligences (8)
○ Logic-math
○ Visual spatial
○ Music rhythm
○ Verbal linguistic
○ Bodily kinaesthetic
○ Interpersonal
○ Intrapersonal
Naturalistic
172
Carroll 1993 - psychometric model
3 basic levels of strata, from least to most abstract.
Stratum 1 = Inductive reasoning, verbal comp, reaction time
Stratum 2 = Fluid, crystalised, visual, auditory
Stratum 3 = G (general factor)
173
The 'Flynn Effect'
- Since 1950's people are getting better at intelligence tests
- Slower gradient in developed countries
- Higher in developing
- Nature of education gets us better AT TESTS
Something about way we currently learning
174
Greater male variability hypothesis
higher proportion of males at the extreme ends (both low and high) of these distributions compared to females (more REALY SMART, AND REALLY DUMB, men but females more consistently good
175
Cyril Burt
- Faked data to show that African Americans are more dumb that white Americans, when he died, found data was faked, and so was research assistant
176
Eysenck & intelligence
- Suggested variation in intelligence was genetic
And differences was genetic
177
Arthur Genson
- Intelligence tests show Africans aren't as smart as white Americans, and since Eysenk said was genetic, no point in helping
178
The Bell curve book
Made argument that intelligence is importantly enough genetic that it explains differences between races
179
Erich Fromm personality styles
Unproductive
- Receptive (need for constant support)
- Exploitative (use other people)
- Horading (cope with insecurity by never parting with anything)
- Marketing (social status, and gain)
Productive
- Negative feelings and channel into productive work (loving & nurturing relationships)
180
Different meanings freedom can have according to Fromm
- Freedom TO do things
- Freedom FROM bad things
Left/right split - left = freedom from, right = freedom to.
181
Social categorisation theory
- Explains universal, often unconscious process of mentally grouping people into social categories (like race, gender, or age) to simplify the social world and make quick, though often inaccurate, judgments.
182
Social learning theory four stages
Attention (stimuli focus)
Retention (rehearse, encode)
Motor Reproduction (practice, feedback)
Motivation (reward, reinforce)
183
Three primary models of obs learning (social learning theory)
1. Live model (actual individual)
2. Verbal instruction
Symbolic (media)
184
Conditions that increase obs learning
Attentional
1. Similarity of model
2. Identification with model
Motivational
1. Rewarded behaviours
2. Status of model
Reinforcement and punishment
185
Critiques in social learning theory
- Not fully explaining cognitive processes involved in learning or how they interact with individual and environmental factors
- Overstate role of observtional learning
- Difficulty in predicting behaviour
- Neglect of biologica
186
Three characteristics of Existence according to buddha
Impermanence, Suffering, Selflessness
187
Buddism and personality
- All we are is a temporary collection of attributes, made up of the body, the feelings, perceptions, reactions and consciousness
188
Antisocial Process Screening Device (APSD)
- 20 items completed by parents/teachers, tap into two factors:
- Callous-unemotional (CU)
- Impulsive/Conflict problems (I/CP)
(psychoapthy test for children)
189
Core ingredients of psychopathy (Triarchic model)
- Disinhibition
- Tendencies towards impulsivity, mistrust, ER difficulties
Boldness
- Dominance, social assurance, "mask" ( can be most adaptive)
Meanness
-Low empathy, contempt towards others, empowerment through cruelty
190
TriPM
Operationalisation of triarchc model
- 3 subscales corresponding to each construct
191
Neurobiological correlates of psychopathy
- Lack of normal enhancement of startle blink reflect
- Reduced brain potential in cog tasks
- Deficits in amygdala reactivity to interersonal distress
192
PSYC221
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