What is the definition of someone’s sex?
The biological differences between males and females including chromosomes, hormones and anatomy.
What is the definition of gender?
The psychological and cultural differences between males and females including attitudes, behaviours and social roles.
What is the definition of gender identity disorder?
When a persons biologically prescribed sex does not reflect the way they feel inside and the gender they identify themselves as.
What is the definition of androgyny?
Displaying a balance of masculine and feminine characteristics is someone’s personality.
How do you measure androgyny?
Bem’s sex - role inventory (BSRI) 1974.
This was the first systematic attempt to measure androgyny. It uses 60 traits (20 male, 20 female, 20 neutral) where respondents rate themselves to produce scores across masculine, feminine, androgynous and undifferentiated.
Evaluation of BSRI?
+ Valid (when piloted with over 1000 students, the results were similar with their own description of their gender identity)
+ Good test - retest reliability
- Idea that those are androgynous are more psychologically healthy can be criticised (others found those with more masc traits are more healthy)
- Oversimplifies complex concept
- Cultural and historical bias
- Using questionnaires can be subjective and biased.
What is the role of chromosomes in sex and gender?
There are 23 pairs of chromosomes in the human body and it is the 23rd pair which determines our biological sex. XX for females, XY for males.
Androgens are the male sex hormones which make the embryo become male.
What are the 2 main hormones in the role of sex and gender?
Testosterone - male
Oestrogen - female
Evaluation of role of chromosomes and hormones in sex and gender?
+ evidence supports (David Reimer, AIS)
+ transgender evidence (Stephanie Van Goozen 1955, gender related behaviours)
- Contradicting evidence (Tricker double blind study - no changes in aggression when injected testosterone)
- Overemphasis on nature
- Oversimplifies complex concept
What is Klinefelters syndrome?
Example of a - typical chromosome pattern Affects 1 in 500/1000 males. They have an extra X chromosome (XXY) - Physical characteristics: Reduced body hair Breast development (gynecomastia) - breast cancer Rounding of body contours Long limbs Problems with co - ordination - Psychological problems: Poor language skills Passive and shy Poor memory and problem solving
What is Turners syndrome?
Example of a - typical chromosome pattern Affects 1 in 5000 females - they lack an X chromosome (X0) - Physical characteristics No menstrual cycle Sterile (ovaries don't develop) No breasts Webbed neck - Psychological characteristics Higher than average reading ability Poor spatial, visual memory and maths Socially immature
Evaluation of a - typical sex chromosome patterns?
+ Adds to nature side of nature - nurture debate
+ Practical application (help treatments)
- Ignores social explanations (environment)
- Unusual sample (not generalisable)
- Ethics (that there is a typical and an a - typical)
What is Kohlberg’s (1966) cognitive explanation?
The idea that a child’s understanding of gender becomes more sophisticated with age.
They go through 3 stages:
Gender Identity (Age 2) Child can correctly label themselves as male or female but think gender can change (by changing clothes)
Gender stability (age 4) gender stays the same over time but gender can change when doing opposite activities.
Gender constancy (age 7) aware that gender stays the same over time and situations.
Once a child has reached stage 3 they go on an active search for evidence which confirms.
Evaluation of Kohlberg’s theory?
+ evidence supports (Slaby and Frey 1975 - children who had reached gender constancy spent longer looking at same sex role model)
+ biological approach supports (theory is based on that the stages are influenced by child’s brain development)
- Constancy may occur earlier (as young as 4)
- Methodological issues (interviews - leading questions, children may have lacked vocab to articulate feelings properly)
- cannot explain individual differences
What is Martin and Halversons gender schema theory?
Agrees with Kohlberg that understanding develops with age but think it occurs much earlier - children start to develop gender identity at the age of 2 - 3. They establish their own identity, in group, and the opposite is the out group.
They then actively seek information about appropriate behaviours and actions of their own group - build their gender schemas.
Evaluation of gender schema theory?
+ evidence supports (Martin and Little found that children as young as 4 showed very strong sex typed behaviours)
+ can explain rigidity of gender beliefs
+ compliments Kohlberg’s theory (gender schema describes organisation of information, gender constancy describes motivation)
- overemphasises role of individual (environment plays more of a role)
- key assumptions not supported (you can’t change someone’s beliefs by changing schemas)
What is Freud’s psychodynamic approach to gender development?
- Children go through 5 psychosexual stages of development (oral,anal,phallic,latent,genital) where different conflicts are encountered which must be resolved. Failure leads to fixation or regression.
- Importance of phallic stage: Oedipus (castration anxiety) and Electra (penis envy) complexes.
- This is resolved by identifying with same sex parent and internalising their views and attitudes - gender identity developed.
Key study linking to Freud’s psychodynamic theory?
Little Hans case study.
Fear of being bitten by horses after seeing horse collapse.
Freud interpreted this as his fear of being bitten was actually a fear of castration - placed fear of father onto horses through displacement.
Evaluation of Freud’s psychodynamic theory?
- no support for complexes - Mussen and Rutherford 1963, those with warm and supportive fathers identified more (contradicts identification is dependent on fear).
- gender bias - work on electra complex was by Carl Jung - penis envy criticised as reflecting patriarchal and repressive society which he lived - cultural concept.
- nuclear family bias - Green 1978, 37 children raised by gay/transgender parents, only 1 had gender identity issues and was non - typical.
- lack of scientific rigour - untestable (unconscious can’t test), Popper said it is a ‘pseudoscience’ as is not falsifiable.
- ignores other approaches - Kohlberg, gender identity gets more sophisticated over time.
What is the social learning theory on gender development?
Learning by imitation. - copy same sex role models.
Parents reinforce behaviour which is seen as gender appropriate - differential reinforcement, gender appropriate behaviours are rewarded and others are punished making them less likely to be repeated.
Vicarious reinforcement - observing others consequences.
Children identify with same sex role models and imitate them.
Also suggested 4 meditational processes: Attention, retention, reproduction, motivation.
Key study linking to social learning theory on gender development?
Perry and Bussey 1979, children were shown films of older people carrying out activities such as choosing a piece of fruit.
When they were in a room with the same fruit, they choose the same fruit that the same sex role model selected - modelled their behaviour.
Evaluation of the social learning approach to gender development?
+ supporting evidence - Bandura’s bobo doll, Smith and Lloyd 1978, adults acted differently to children assumed to be certain gender.
+ explains changing western societies - shift in social expectations so new acceptable gender behaviour has been reinforced - better explained by SLT than biological.
- single parent families (less role models) still show SLT- models not as important.
- ignores biological approach (David Reimer) - causes problems with homosexuality - biosocial theory more popular (innate differences reinforced)
- sees children as passive - actually much more active in learning.
What is the influence of culture on gender?
Helps nature/nurture debate - if something is consistent across cultures then we would conclude it is innate and visa versa.
Mead 1935: gender roles different to western societies.
- Arapesh men and women fitted feminine stereotype.
- Mungugumor men and women fitted masculine stereotype.
- Tchambuli men and women behaviour opposite.
Buss 1989 - 37 cultures similarities.
- in all cultures women seek men with wealth and resources.
- in all cultures men seek women with youth and physical attractiveness.
Evaluation of studies on culture and gender?
- investigator effects - participants act differently due to researcher presence.
- communication - researcher may be misinformed or not understand.
- observer bias - Mead especially criticised (Freeman argued her findings her influenced by her own views).
- imposed etics - Berry 2002, idea that western researchers impose own culture on subjects. (solved by having someone from population on team).
- unclear as to nature or nurture.
