What is universality?
Anything that can be applied to all despite differences of up bringing and experiences.
Gender and culture bias threaten this.
What is Alpha and Beta bias?
Alpha bias = exaggerates/overestimate differences between sexes.
Beta bias = minimises/underestimates differences between sexes.
What are examples of alpha and beta bias?
Alpha: sociobiological theory (Wilson 1975) - suggests that sexual promiscuity in males is genetically determined but females who engage in same behaviour are regarded as ‘going against their nature’. (exaggerates differences).
Beta: fight or flight response - assumes that males and females have same fight or flight responses despite only studying males.
– Taylor (2000) - female biology inhibits fight or flight.
What is a consequence of beta bias?
ANDROCENTRISM = ‘male centred’: when normal behaviour is is judged according to male standard.
– meaning female behaviour is seen as abnormal and misunderstood in comparison.
E.G. PMS
Evaluation of gender bias?
+ reflexivity - Dambrin and Lambert (2008) gender-related experiences affected interpretation of findings into lack of women in executive roles.
+ feminist psychology - Worrell (1992) criteria to avoid gender bias research (studies in meaningful context, participate in research, diversity within women’s groups, qualitative data)
- negative consequences - create misleading assumptions and fail to challenge negative stereotypes and validate discriminate. (scientific justification)
- sexism within research process - lack of women at senior research level means females may not be properly represented. (institutional sexism)
- research comes from essentialist views - sexism is inevitable: ‘double-standard’ in way behaviour is reviewed.
What is an example of research which is culturally biased?
Asch conformity study
Milgram obedience study
– both conducted with only US participants and when replicated in other countries there were very different results (Kilham and Mann 1974).
What is ethnocentrism?
Form of cultural bias which involves judging other cultures by the standards of values of ones own culture.
What is an example of research which is ethnocentric?
Ainsworth Strange Situation (1970) - only shows norms and values of American culture.
– suggested ideal attachment (secure) was when an infant showed moderate amounts of stress when left alone.
This led to misinterpretation of child rearing practices in other countries e.g. German mothers seen as cold and rejecting rather than encouraging independence.
What is cultural relativism?
Idea that human behaviour can only be meaningful and understood within specific social and cultural contexts.
e.g. Strange situation only understood in US context.
(being mindful of this can reduce cultural bias)
What is the difference between an emic and etic approach?
Berry (1969)
Emic = studying cultures in isolation by identifying behaviours that are specific to that culture.
Etic = studying behaviours across many cultures to find universal human behaviours.
PSYCHOLOGY GUILTY OF TAKING ETIC APPROACH ON RESEARCH FROM EMIC APPROACH. (imposed etic)
What is an imposed etic?
research devised in one culture that is used to explain human behaviour in another culture.
What is the difference between individualist and collectivist cultures?
Individualist = cultures which are more independent (western countries) Collectivist = cultures which are more group - orientated (e.g. India and China).
Evaluation of cultural bias?
+ challenges western ways of thinking - greater sensitivity to individual difference means more valid research.
- individualist and collectivist too simplistic of a distinction - Takano and Osaka (1999), 14/15 studies which compared USA to Japan found no traditional distinction. (cultural bias less on an issue than in once was).
- not all research is culturally bias - some human behaviour is universal e.g. imitation and interactional synchronicty.
- research tradition = leads to demand characteristics exaggerated.
- operationalisation of variables in other cultures - variables may not be experienced in same way.
What are the ethical guidelines? 6
- consent
- deception
- confidentiality
- debrief
- withdrawal
- protection.
What are ethical implications?
impact research has on society and how it influences public policy and how people are seen.
What is socially sensitive research?
any research which may be controversial.
e.g. race, sexuality, genetic basis on criminality.
What did Arson (1999) say about socially sensitive research?
Socially sensitive research may attract attention from other psychologists and the media and pupil but we shouldn’t ‘shy away’ from it.
– “psychologists have a social responsibility to conduct socially sensitive research”.
What raises ethical issues for socially sensitive research? 3
Sieber and Stanley (1988)
- implications - wider effects of research needs to be considered (some may be seen as giving ‘scientific’ credibility for prejudice and discrimination).
- uses/public policy - findings may be adopted by government for political ends/shape public policy.
- validity of research - findings must be objective and value free.
Evaluation of socially sensitive research (ethical issues)?
+ benefits of socially sensitive research - benefited society e.g. showed unreliability of EWT and helped reduce incorrect prosecution.
+ framing question - Sieber and Sieber (1988), way question is phrased can influence way findings are intepreted - researchers must have an open mind.
- negative consequences - used by government and adverting to create social policies and subliminal messages e.g. coco cola ads showed flashing images to increase sales from information from study which findings were made up. (manipulate public).
- social control - has been used to ‘prop up’ discriminatory practises .
- costs and benefits hard to predict - consequences involving vulnerable groups and worth of research hard to predict
What is free will?
Based on that humans make choices which are not determined by biological or external forces.
What approaches support free will?
Humanistic approach - Rogers and Maslow
- self determination is key in changing behaviour (taking responsibility within idea of the self). - without it you cannot reach self actualisation. (Maslows hierarchy of needs).
What is determinism?
Human behaviour is shaped by internal or external forces rather than the individuals will to do something.
What are the 2 variations of determinism?
Hard determinism = free will is not possible and behaviour is ALWAYS shaped by internal and external forces which we can’t control.
Soft determinism = James (1890), all events have a cause but behaviour can also be changed by choices.
(cognitive approach heavily based on this).
What approaches support determinism? (types of determinism) 3
Biological determinism = behaviour is caused by biological factors. (genes, brain structures, neurotransmitters)
E.G. mental disorders have genetic basis, hormones in aggression.
Environmental determinism = Skinner - behaviour is caused by environmental factors. (reward systems and punishment, conditioning, socialisation).
E.G. classical and operant conditioning, agents of socialisation.
Psychic determinism = Freud - behaviour is caused by unconscious conflicts (biological drives/instincts).
E.G. emphasise on childhood (events repressed in childhood can determine adult behaviour).
