1
Q
What is globalisation
A
- Growing interdependence between countries
- Driven by flows of trade, capital, people, information, culture
- Creates faster, deeper, longer global connections
2
Q
What are the main flows in globalisation
A
• Capital (FDI, stocks)
• Labour (migration)
• Products (manufactured goods)
• Services (footloose industries)
• Information (media, internet)
3
Q
What is meant by the shrinking world
A
• Time–space compression
• Improvements in transport & ICT make distances feel shorter
• Faster communication and global mobility
4
Q
How did 19th–20th century transport accelerate globalisation?
A
• Steam power → faster global shipping
• Jet aircraft → fast travel & freight
• Containerisation → cheaper global trade
5
Q
Key ICT developments accelerating globalisation?
A
• Internet & fibre optics
• Mobile phones/smartphones
• Social media
• GPS tracking
IMSG
6
Q
Why is containerisation important?
A
• 200+ million container movements yearly
• Standardised, cheap, fast global transport
• Enables modern global supply chains
7
Q
How does the IMF encourage globalisation?
A
- Loans to developing nations
- Requires privatisation & open markets
- Allows TNC entry but may increase debt
Evaluation of their role: strict conditions and governments borrowing which may result in the government reducing spending on healthcare, education etc
8
Q
What does the World Bank do?
A
- Funds development projects
- Aims to reduce poverty & enable global integration
- Criticised for increasing debt burdens
Evaluation of their role: distributed US 65 billion in loans and grants, imposes strict conditions on loans and grants, controversial all world bank presidents have been US citizens
9
Q
What is the role of the WTO?
A
- Promotes trade liberalisation
- Encourages removal of tariffs, quotas, subsidies
Evaluation of their role: failed to stop the USA and the EU from subsidising their own food producers which hinders farmers in LDCs
10
Q
Benefits of trade blocs?
A
• Larger markets for businesses
• More reliable trade routes
• Creates positive multiplier effects
11
Q
Disadvantages of trade blocs?
A
• Excludes countries outside the bloc
• Harms non-member industries
• Can create uneven advantages
12
Q
How do governments promote globalisation?
A
• Free-market liberalisation
• Privatisation
• Encouraging start-ups
• FDI incentives
13
Q
What is free-market liberalisation?
A
• Reducing government intervention
• Deregulating finance sectors
• Encourages foreign investment
14
Q
What is privatisation?
A
• Selling state-owned industries to private companies
• Raises revenue, encourages efficiency
• Criticised for lower service quality
15
Q
What is FDI and why is it encouraged?
A
• Investment by TNCs into a country
• Creates jobs, boosts tax revenue
• May lead to foreign dominance
16
Q
What does the KOF Index measure?
A
• Political globalisation
• Economic globalisation
• Social globalisation
• Score from 1–100
17
Q
What does the AT Kearney Index measure?
A
- Globalised cities
- Economic integration, personal contact
- Technological connectivity
- Political engagement
18
Q
What are simple measures of development?
A
• GNI, GDP, PPP, income per capita
• Easy comparisons but hide inequality
19
Q
Why are TNCs significant in globalisation?
A
• Operate across many countries
• Control global supply chains
• Produce jobs, investment, cultural flows
OCP
20
Q
How do TNCs create global links?
A
• FDI → factories, mergers, acquisitions
• Offshoring & outsourcing
• Vertical & horizontal integration
21
Q
What risks do TNCs pose?
A
• Worker exploitation
• Environmental damage
• Vulnerability to supply chain shocks
22
Q
What are switched-off places?
A
Places that remain relatively switched off from the global network
Often politically or geographically isolated
Strong flows of trade and investment with other countries are absent in these countries
23
Q
Environmental factors limiting globalisation?
A
• Landlocked status
• Harsh climates
• Poor resources
24
Q
Political & economic reasons for being switched off?
A
• Corruption, conflict, censorship
• Weak markets, poor infrastructure
25
Benefits of outsourcing to India?
• Rising middle class incomes
• Multiplier effects
• Skilled English-speaking workforce
26
Costs of outsourcing in India?
-Long hours, low pay
-Inequality between skilled & unskilled workers
-loss of productive land
-Unplanned settlement
-Environmental and resource pressure
27
Benefits of manufacturing in China?
• Wage employment instead of farming
• Technology transfer
• Rapid economic growth
28
Environmental impacts of industrialisation in China?
Air pollution (particulates)
Water pollution (arsenic, lead)
Soil contamination
Loss of farmland
Loss of biodiversity
Over exploitation of resources
Land degradation
29
Why is pollution severe in emerging economies?
• Weak regulation
• Cheap labour prioritised over safety
• High industrial demand
30
Economic impacts of deindustrialisation?
Job losses
• Depopulation
• Rising deprivation
31
Environmental impacts of deindustrialisation
• Derelict factories
• Contaminated land
• Abandoned industrial waste
32
What are urban pull factors?
• Better jobs
• Better services (health, education)
• Transport & infrastructure
33
What are rural push factors?
• Poverty
• Land disputes
• Agricultural mechanisation
34
What are global hubs?
• Highly connected cities with global influence
• Attract elite & economic migrants
35
Why do elite migrants move to hubs?
• Investment opportunities
• High salaries
• High-quality services
36
Benefits for host countries for migration
• Skill gaps filled
• Larger workforce
• Cultural diversity
37
Costs for host countries for migration
• Pressure on services
• Housing demand increases
• Potential tensions
38
Benefits for source countries?
• Remittances
• Returning skilled workers
39
What is cultural diffusion?
• Spread of cultural ideas
• Driven by media, TNCs, migration
40
Examples of cultural diffusion?
• Western diets in Asia
• Global music & fashion trends
41
What is cultural erosion?
• Loss of traditional culture
• Caused by westernisation/globalisation
42
Negative impacts of erosion?
• Loss of language/traditions
• Conflict with indigenous groups
43
How has France resisted cultural change?
• 40% of media must be French
44
How does China restrict culture?
• Great Firewall
• Blocks foreign media
45
Environmental impacts of globalisation?
• Emissions from transport
• Deforestation
• Resource depletion
46
Social impacts of globalisation
• Rising living standards
• But growing inequality
47
What does the Gini coefficient measure?
• Inequality from 0 (equal) to 100 (unequal)
48
How has inequality changed globally?
• Asia: incomes rising
• Africa: stagnation in some regions
49
How does globalisation create environmental inequality?
• Polluting industries relocated to poor countries
• Weak regulation
50
How has migration fuelled political conflict?
• Rise of far-right groups in EU
• Concerns over cultural change
51
Example of resource conflict?
Mekong River dam disputes
52
Positive attitudes to mixing?
• Multiculturalism
• Diverse cities
53
Negative attitudes to mixing
• Nationalism
• Resistance to migrants
54
Ways governments restrict globalisation?
• Censorship
• Migration control
• Protectionism
55
What is resource nationalism?
• Governments protecting domestic resources
• Limiting foreign access
56
Cultural protection examples?
• Indigenous land defence
• Language laws
57
Benefits of local sourcing?
• Lower emissions
• Supports local jobs
58
Disadvantages of local sourcing
• Higher costs
• Developing countries lose income
59
What do Transition Towns promote?
• Local currencies
• Reduced consumption
• Recycling & sustainability
60
What does Fairtrade aim to do?
• Provide fair prices to producers
• Support ethical supply chains
61
How has ICT developments contributed to the acceleration of globalisation
by collapsing geographical distance, drastically reducing transaction costs, and facilitating instantaneous, real-time collaboration across borders. These technological advancements have transformed the global economy from one driven primarily by shipping lanes and tariffs to one shaped by data flows, digital platforms, and virtual networks.
62
What is time space compression
refers to the shrinking world effect where advanced transport and ICT make distant places feel closer, accelerating connectivity.
63
What are the four types of globalisation?
Economic globalisation – increase of transnational corporations and information and communications technology
Social globalisation – international immigration, improvements in education and healthcare and social interconnectivity
Political globalisation – the increase in trading blocks, free trade agreements and global organisations (eg. The World Bank, the IMF and WTO)
Cultural globalisation – through western cultural characteristics dominating in some areas, globalisation, and hybridisation, and the increased speed at which of ideas and information are circulated
64
What are TNCs?
Companies who operate in many countries producing and selling goods and services
65
What is glocalisation?
Changing the design of products to meet local tastes or laws
66
What are trading blocs?
A group of countries and or organisations that work together for trading purposes
67
68
How to trade and transport development into dependent in the 19th and 20th of century
Trade and transport influenced each other: better transport increased the amount and value of trade, and profits from trade encouraged countries to invest in new transport technologies to increase profits further
69
70
How have global connections changed over overtime, and what are the key features of modern globalisation?
In the past, global connections were mainly created through trade, colonialism and international organisations. Modern globalisation is defined by a lengthening connections(goods from further away),deepening connections.(more involvement in daily life),and faster connections.(real time communication and rapid travel)
71
V
72
What is fdi?
Foreign direct investment
73
What are free trade blocs?
Allow governments to trade freely within neighbouring countries and allies which brings many benefits
74
How have special economic zones, government subsidies and changing attitudes to FDI contributed to the spread of globalisation?
Globalisation has increased as regions outside Europe have adopted pro business strategies to attract TNCs: special economic zones – coastal industry areas offering favourable conditions(eg. lower taxes, fewer regulations.) to attract TNCs
Government subsidies: financial incentives that reduce cost for TNCs, encouraging them to locate in these countries
Changing attitudes to FDI: government actively attract foreign investment to boost global presence(e.g. Saudi Arabia aligning its weekend with global markets.)
75
What is China’s open door policy?
Introduced in 1978 to begin opening up to FDI whilst remaining under a one party rule
Rapid urbanisation occur occurred with over 300 million people leaving rural areas which led to an increase in low wage batteries in urban areas
Special economic zones were created which attracted TNCs, leading to rapid economic growth
China is the worlds largest economy but is still not entirely open to global flows
76
What are issues with the KOF index
-This information is only available for 122 countries
-Some of the indicators used and now outdated due to improvement in telecommunications
-There is cultural bias in some of the indicators, for example, the number of McDonald’s
-Trade indicators ignore the informal economy
-It does not take into account environmental factors
77
What are issues with the AT Kearney world city index
-Only includes 156 countries
78
What are historical factors that can limit globalisation?
-Major conflicts and geopolitical instability– world wars
-Legacies of colonialism– uneven development
-Economic protect ism – trade war, tariffs
79
Explain poverty reduction as a benefit of the global shift for Asia
Globally over 1 billion people have escaped poverty with over 500 million in China alone
A ‘ New global middle class’ has emerged to describe the increasing number of working people in Urban and areas
80
81
Explain waged work as a benefit of the global shift for Asia
Many people are now earning between US $10 and US $100 per day working in the manufacturing or services sectors
82
Explain infrastructure investment as a benefit of the global shift for Asia
Economic growth leads to investment in infrastructure
Development of motorways, high-speed railways and airports
83
Explain education and training as a benefit of the global shift for Asia
Education has improved across Asia
Millions of graduate degrees are presented by over 2500 universities in China, India and South Korea alone
Asian countries play a vital role in quaternary sector
84
What are the benefits of the global shift for Asia?
Poverty reduction
Waged work
Infrastructure investment
Education and training
85
What are the costs of the global shift for Asia?
Unplanned settlements
Loss of productive land
Environmental and resource pressure
86
Explain unplanned settlements as a cost of the global shift for Asia
The growing trend of high-rise developments in city leads to a loss of recreational space
Rapid urbanisation often leads to an increase in unplanned settlements eg Dara in Mumbai is Home to around 1 million people
87
Explain loss of productive land as a cost of the global shift for Asia
Land has been exploited and overused which leads to soil erosion and soil infertility
88
Explain environmental and resource pressure as a cost of the global shift for Asia
Loss of forested land due to urbanisation, logging and farming
Reduced demand of natural resources such as soyabeans and iron ore can negatively impact economic growth
89
What is natural increase?
a natural increase is achieved when there is a higher birth rate than death rate
90
What are social challenges created by the rapid urban growth in Mumbai?
Overwhelmed infrastructure
Lack of services –clean water , electricity-only having one toilet for every 500 people
High crime and low wages
Disease
91
What are environmental challenges created by rapid urban growth in Mumbai?
Water and waste pollution
Air pollution and traffic – over 22 million registered vehicles
Waste management
92
Examples of global hubs
New York, Mumbai, London, Tokyo, Beijing
93
Explain TNCs as a factor leading to cultural diffusion
Global distribution of products such as food and cloves has contributed to creating a common culture
Some TNCs have introduced uniform products globally, e.g. Nike, apple and Lego.
Some TNCs have adapted their products to suit each country reflecting local cultures e.g. McDonald’s(glocalisation)
94
Explain the global media as a factor leading to cultural diffusion
Western celebrations of Halloween and Christmas appear in films and TV
BBC contribute to the UK’s cultural influence abroad
Other countries experience American and UK cultural through TV shows such as Downton Abbey
However, other shows are adapted and each country has their own version, e.g. Britain’s got talent
95
Explain migration and tourism as a factor leading to cultural diffusion
Throughout history, Europeans have travelled around the world sharing their languages and customs
Migration can have an impact on the culture of the host country
Sometimes this change may only be parcel e.g. British migrants exporting English language and love of cricket to other countries but having a minimal impact on other things such as religion
96
What is GDP?
The final value of output of goods and services inside a nations border.
Each countries data is manipulated to take into account the real cost of living known as PPP purchasing power parity
97
What is economic sector balance?
A country or regions economy is crudely divided into four sectors: primary, secondary, tertiary,quaternary
98
What is the human development index
Ranks countries based on economic criteria (PPP) and social criteria(life expectancy, literacy). These free factors are used to reduce a number between 0-1
99
What is the gender inequality index?
Measures three aspects of social and economic development:
-reproductive health(maternal mortality ratio and adolescence birth rates)
-Empowerment(parliament seats occupied by women and amount of people age 25+ with secondary education)
-Labour force participant rate of people age 15+
100
What is the environmental performance index?
This measure shows that environmental quality is often poor in developing and emerging countries
101
What’s the difference between absolute poverty and relative poverty
Absolute poverty-income is too low for basic needs to be met
Relative poverty-income is too low for the average standard of living in a particular society
Geography Paper 2
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