1
Q
What was the capital of Kongo?
A
Mbanza Kongo
2
Q
What was Mpemba known for?
A
- Contained Mbanza Kongo
3
Q
Why was Nsundi important?
A
- contained iron mines to make agricultural tools and weapons
- controlled the Northern border, fighting the Teke people
4
Q
Why was Soyo important?
A
- controlled by a relative of the manikongo
- port for European trade
- rich province, with large supply of grain, sweet potatoes and fish
- thrice yearly harvests
5
Q
why was Ndongo important?
A
- contained cattle
- frequently raided by Kongo for tribute
6
Q
Why was Mbamba important?
A
- province containing Luanda, controlling Nzimbu shell by 1500
- largest and wealthiest province
7
Q
How did Kongo’s geography help them rise?
A
- Mbanza Kongo on a plateau
- mountains North of Ndongo
- buffer state of Mbata on the Eastern marshes
- access to the coast
- iron mines in Nsundi
8
Q
What was the kanda?
A
local lineage systems that legitimised the holding of land
9
Q
What was the Mwissikongo?
A
ruling class of the Kongo kinship
10
Q
what was Malebo pool?
A
- important trading market for commodities and enslaved people
- traded Copper from the North
- important site for the procurement of slaves
11
Q
How did the Manikongo show his supreme leadership?
A
-travelled in a litter so his feet did not touch the ground
- large palace compound with many unpaid servants
- gave scraps to his attendants, who clapped loudly with gratitude
- only he was allowed to wear or give permission to wear certain fabrics
12
Q
Why was the Manikongo’s health important?
A
represented the health of the kingdom; if it declined, the kingdom did too
13
Q
Why was Saint James important?
A
- Afonso attributed his success in the civil war/succession dispute to his
- became the coat of arms
14
Q
What was succession like?
A
- No single line of succession
- new Manikongos elected from multiple potential heirs
- initially matrilineal and elected by a council of 12 Mwissikongo
15
Q
What was the main advantage of the Kanda system?
A
collecting tax: the village chief took tribute form individuals and families then took it to the governor of the province, who delivered it to the capital 2x a year
16
Q
What political structure did Kongo have?
A
federal
17
Q
Where did the Mwissikongo originate and reside?
A
- originated from a kikongo-speaking region south of the Zaire
- lived in Mbanza-Kongo
18
Q
What was the structure of the Mwissi Kongo?
A
- 12 people split into 3 groups
- 4 women who would have been chiefs of the Manikongo’s own, father’s, maternal and paternal grandfather’s Kandas
Principal woman called ‘Mother’ of the Manikongo- female chief
19
Q
What percentage of people in Kongo were enslaved by the mid-17th century?
A
50%
20
Q
What roles did enslaved people play?
A
messengers, traders, concubines, soldiers and land workers
21
Q
Why was slavery important to the Mwissikongo?
A
Reduced reliance on kanda for food
22
Q
In the late 16th century, how big was the manikongo’s personal guard and what was important about it?
A
16-20,000 Tio slaves commanded by 4 MwissiKongo titleholders
23
Q
How did Christianity affect the Mwissikongo?
A
- Christianity favoured patrilineage therefore people would favour their father’s side over matrilineage, used by the Kanda
- religious connection enabled European trade therefore increased wealth
24
Q
How did Mwissi Kongo prove their conversion to Christianity?
A
Adopted European names
25
How did the mwissikongo centralise power (economic)?
- Manikongo claimed right to inherit slaves of deceased and deprived titleholders
- many titleholders were sons of Mwissikongo so the Manikongo could appropriate the large number of slaves held by Mwissikongo
- kept provinces in miserable poverty, concentrating wealth in Mbanza Kongo
26
How did MwissiKongo definition change?
went from members of a central Kanda to male-line descendents of the central Kanda members baptised during Afonso's reign
27
How did christianity and European influence alter traditional societal structures?
- decreased social security for Kanda while children of slave wives with the Mwissikongo could rise in society
- Kanda depleted of land and labour
- Mwissikongo chiefs and judges were appointed to parallel the authority of Kanda segment chiefs
28
How did the Mwissikongo manipulate their roles?
As judges, they could impose slavery as a punishment for criminal offences
29
How did the shift towards patrilineage affect women?
- Mwissikongo made large payments for the principal wives
- discouragement of polygamy meant titleholders abandoned lesser wives
- principal wives of provincial governors often ruled in their absence
30
What were some of Kongo's natural resources?
millet, palm trees, yam, Kola nuts
31
What was the cultural and productive significance of Mbanza Kongo?
- blacksmiths' shops around the capital made weapons and agricultural tools
- pottery, wood carving, hide curing, basket making and weaving
32
What was the village economy?
- land owned communally, harvests divided between households
- overall surplus of produce was appropriated through rent by the Kitomi, a religious figure
- village ruler played little to no role in productive decisions
33
Why was Mbanza Kongo important?
- 10,000 households by 1595
- high concentration of freed labour developed building projects, standing armies and visible displays of luxury
34
How did the Manikongo attempt to maintain loyalty and centralised power with his provincial governors?
- countryside life was unattractive so he promised a return for good performance
- graduated scheme: sent governors to minor, rural provinces, then more important districts and finally Mbanza-kongo
- limited term in unfamiliar province gave governors little incentive to invest
35
Who were the Luso-African bourgeoisie?
wealthy people of mixed African and Portuguese heritage
36
How did Kongo cosmology allow for smoother conversion to Catholicism?
- belief in afterlife
- overseeing spiritual force (Nzambi a Mpungu)
- guardians called Simbi (like angels or saints)
- belief that spirits could inhabit charms (Nkisi) like the Bible
37
When was the Jaga invasion?
1568
38
When was Christianity first adopted and who by?
The Manisoyo was baptised in April 1491
Manikongo Nzinga a Nkuwu was baptised in May 1491, becoming Joao I
39
What was early adoption of Christianity and collaboration with the Portuguese like?
1000 Kongolese assisted Portuguese masons in building a church
Portuguese soldiers helped defend against Teke raiders in Nsundi and provided firearms
40
Why did Joao renounce or cool to Catholicism at the end of his reign?
Christianity opposed polygamy and he believed 'a prime requirement of politics was a skilful matrimonial policy'
his subjects criticised the abandonment of local customs
41
How did the Portuguese attempt to control Kongo using religion?
- when Henrique dies, the Portuguese king tried to assert control by placing Kongo under the control of the newly created Bishop of Sao Tome in 1534 but failed
-
42
Who was the ne vunda?
Traditional priest of the coronation, who supervised the construction and maintenance of the churches and provided water for baptism; role created as part of the syncretic approach under Afonso
43
How did Afonso show his commitment to Catholicism?
- sent his son, Henrique, to Lisbon to be ordained as a bishop in 1518
- sent for missionaries, who arrived in 1512
- 1513 swore an oath of obedience to the Pope
- established a tithe
- appealed to the Pope in 1529 and 1539 about the immorality and corruption of the Portuguese missionaries
44
How did Afonso build his diplomatic relationship with the Portuguese?
- studied Portuguese laws
- learnt etiquette, customs and hierarchies of Portuguese society
- used Portuguese words and ideas when addressing diplomats and missionaries
- called some provincial governors dukes, and court and military officials were called marquises
- sent students to Lisbon in 1493
45
What were Afonso I's greatest achievements?
- By 1509, he had built schools for 400 pupils
- 1512 regimento
- 37 year reign
- expanded to the South and East
- developed administrative officers to govern the provinces and oversee the slave trade in 1526
46
How did Afonso come to the throne?
-defeated his brother Mpanzu a Kitama (non-Christian) in civil war, despite his brother's superior army and claimed that St James helped him win
47
What was Christianity under Diogo like?
- drove out the Bishop of Sao Tome in 1547
- 1549, limited missionaries' activities and denounced a conspiracy against him
- Jesuits advised Joao of Portugal to have him replaced
- 1557, banned most Europeans from his states
- allowed priests to visit neighbouring states e.g. Matamba, to spread Catholicism
48
When did Afonso reign?
1506-1543
49
When did Pedro I reign?
1543-1545 but overthrown
50
When did Diogo I reign?
1545-1561
51
When did Afonso II reign?
1561-1563
52
When did Bernardo I reign?
1563-1567
53
When did Alvaro I reign?
1568-1587
54
When did Alvaro II reign?
1587-1614
55
When did Alvaro III reign?
1615-1622
56
When did Pedro II reign?
1622-1624
57
When did Garcia I reign?
1624-1626
58
When did Ambrosio reign?
1626-1631
59
When did Alvaro V and Alvaro VI reign?
1636-1641
60
When did Garcia II reign?
1641-1661
61
When did Antonio reign?
1661-1665
62
When did the succession crisis occur and how many manikongos were there?
1665-1709, 15 different Manikongos
63
What was Christianity under Alvaro I like?
- Luso-African Bourgeoisie formed
- mix of Portuguese and native clergy
- in Mbanza Kongo, a small literate class of bureaucrats helped the Manikongo collect revenues and manage relations with Luanda, Sao Tome, Lisbon and Rome
- sent repeated embassies to the Kings of Portugal and Spain, and the Pope
- requested missionaries
64
When was the Capuchin mission?
1645 (under Garcia II)
65
How did the state distribute income?
- individuals who collected state revenue could take a portion for themselves (renda)
- the ManiKongo could grant an individual a sum of money (a moradia)
66
How was the church's power limited?
the state controlled its income e.g. in the 1550s, Diogo cut off church funds
67
Summarise Afonso I's letter to Joao of Portugal?
1526, he asked Joao to control his merchants as they were selling 'prohibited goods', which undermined his monopoly on firearms. He recognised that the 'peace and health of your kingdom (portugal) depend on us' and talks about their shared faith.
68
What was Afonso I's relationship with the Portuguese like?
- gave Portuguese traders special privileges after 1512 regimento
- extraterritorial rights to Portuguese subjects and supplied slaves to traders
- 1510, he had to ask Portugal for a special representative to control the Portuguese, who turned to commence and disobeyed Kongo's laws
- rejected Manuel's plan to westernise Kongo
- threatened to expel Portuguese merchants in 1528 after they circumvented his 1526 restrictions on the slave trade by going directly to nobles
69
How did Afonso try to manage the slave trade and how successful was it?
- supplied slaves to traders
- 1526 unsuccessfully issued decrees to moderate it- merchants went to nobles directly
- threatened to expel Portuguese merchants
- conceded by allowing merchants to trade directly with nobles but levied taxes and commanded that only official boats be used
- protested the enslavement of freeborn Kongolese
70
Why was the slave trade beneficial and detrimental to Afonso I?
decentralised power as he lost his monopoly when his nobles traded directly, and firearms became freely available, not solely administered by the Manikongo. Centralised power by giving him access to more goods to increase his patronage.
71
What act did Afonso do that confused the Portuguese?
repeatedly sent silver objects as gifts, making Portugal think Kongo had silver mines and inspiring future invasions
72
What are some limitations to Afonso I's success?
Failed to manage slave trade
assassination attempt in 1539
criticised by priests for his concubines
73
What were Diogo I's greatest achievements?
- balanced relationship with Europeans, expelling Jesuits in 1555
- made the Nzimbu shell national currency, which Kongo controlled, making Portuguese traders dependent
- controlled the succession by writing a will
74
summarise Pedro I's reign
became king in 1543 and was overthrown in 1545, seeking asylum in a church. Diogo was reluctant to remove him, allowing Pedro to plot Diogo's overthrow. Diogo launched an inquest in 1550, discovered Pedro's plot
75
What limited Diogo's success?
- Portuguese trade with Tio undermined the Nzimbu system as Europeans could trade outside of Kongo
- in Pedro's plot, he exposed significant opposition from nobles and family members and when Diogo crushed the rebellion, his grandson Rodrigo escaped and sought papal blessing to be the true King
- suffered a heavy defeat against Ndongo in 1556 and Ndongo got formal recognition from Portugal in 1557
76
When was the battle of Mbwila?
1665
77
How many titular heads died in the battle of Mbwila?
98
78
What happened after the battle of Mbwila?
Mbanza Kongo was sacked
15 different manikongos struggled for power
opposing groups began enslaving each other
79
What were Alvaro I's biggest achievements?
- profited from the creation of a new slave route from the Kwango river
- military reforms: formed a regiment of musketeers
- promoted slaves to leading positions in government
- almost 20 year reign
80
What were Alvaro I's limitations?
- 1568 Jaga invasion, he enlisted the support of 600 soldiers from Sao Tome but was then indebted to the Portuguese
- Portuguese falsely claimed that he gave Portuguese traders tax exemptions
- 1575, Portugal colonised Angola and Alvaro unsuccessfully tries to convince the Ndongo kings not to accept a Portuguese presence at Luanda
- failed to send ambassadors to the pope (disrupted by storms and pirates)
81
What were Alvaro II's greatest achievements?
- granted habits of the order of Christ to his loyal followers
- Sao Salvador was recognised as the capital of the diocese of Kongo and Angola
82
What were Alvaro II's greatest limitations?
- was forced to accept Soyo's de facto independence
- in 1596, Portugal appointed Kongo's bishop
83
What were Pedro II's greatest achievements?
- experienced as he was duke of Mbamba
- recognised by Jesuits as a paragon of Christian deportment
- battle of Mbanda Kasi: Kongo's army crushed the Portuguese and imbangala
- Protected the Portuguese merchants against the riots
- returned 1200 slaves from Brazil
- wrote to the Dutch states general, asking for help to reclaim Luanda, establishing a relationship
84
What were Pedro II's greatest limitations?
- governor of Angola, Joao Correia de Sousa, sent an army to Kongo, claiming that he had the right to choose the king and that Pedro had harboured Angolan runaway slaves when he was duke of Mbamba
- 1st Luso Kongolese war: 20,000 Portuguese and imbangala entered Mbamba, defeated the Duke of Mbumbi's army, supposedly ate him
- anti-Portuguese riots after the battle of Mbanda Kasi
85
What was the regimento?
in 1512, Manuel of Portugal sent vessels of brass, ivory and slaves to Afonso to establish a trading relationship.
86
What happened to the Dutch alliance during Garcia I's reign?
his father had arranged for a Dutch fleet, led by Piet Heyn, to attack Luanda. When he arrived, the count of Soyo, Antonio da Silva, lied to Heyn, saying that Garcia only wanted peace between Kongo and Portugal
87
What were Garcia II's biggest achievements?
- in 1657, Garcia defeated rival claimants from Nsundi
- built alliances through marriage e.g. married his daughter to the duke of Mbamba
88
what were Garcia II's biggest limitations?
- a large Dutch force invaded Angola and Garcia had to respect the alliance with the Dutch despite religious qualms
- Dutch fleet captured Luanda but could not displace Portuguese forces
- the Duke of Soyo, Daniel da Silva, captured Garcia's heir, Afonso, in 1646
- failed to invade Soyo in 1655
89
What were Diogo I's relations with Europeans like?
- 1546, he sent an ambassador, Diogo Gomes, to Europe to confirm their treaty of 1517, limiting the Portuguese to the port of Mpinda, and to establish relations with the Holy See
90
What was Alvaro I's relationship with Europeans like?
- submitted to the Portuguese after they sent 600 troops to assist against the Jaga invasion
- Portugal colonised Ndongo, calling it Angola
- semi-colonial
91
What was the Jaga invasion?
starting under Diogo's reign, the Yaka/jaga were victims of constant slave raids who swept through Mbata and Mpemba in 1568 before sacking Mbanza Kongo in 1569
92
summarise the 1st Luso-Kongolese war
1622
Cardosa and de Vasconcellos, who was succeeded by Joao Correira de Sousa, allied with the Imbangala, attacked Kongo. Kongo lost at the battle of Mbumbi but won at Mbanda Kasi
93
What were the consequences of the 1st Luso-Kongolese war?
anti-Portuguese riots
Pedro II put Portuguese merchants under royal protection
he wrote letters of protest to the Vatican, Charles III of Spain and Portugal
94
What was the Kongo-Dutch alliance?
- Dutch mercenaries, frustrated with Portuguese attempts to prohibit their trade on the coast, allied with Kongo.
- Pedro offered to pay for the Dutch soldiers' ships and salaries and hand over Luanda
95
How did the Dutch invasion of Luanda go?
- 1623, the West India company went to the Angola coast to raid and in 1624, they put a blockade on Luanda, attacking Portuguese ships
- Piet Heyn sailed for Luanda with 550 men but this was interrupted by pedro's death and Antonio da Silva's manipulation
96
What were the consequences of the failed Dutch invasion of Luanda and Garcia's accession?
Kongo and Portugal reconciled ad Garcia was too young to fight against Luanda. Portugal's commercial monopoly ended as France, England and the Dutch began to settle in Soyo
97
summarise the 2nd Luso-Kongolese war?
Cornelis Jol attacked Luanda under the provisions of Pedro's original arrangement. Garcia II sent an army to Mbamba to support him. The Dutch eventually abandoned it and Garcia had to redirect his efforts towards the disobedient count of Soyo, Daniel da Silva
98
What were the consequences of the 2nd Luso-Kongolese war?
The Dutch captured Luanda, allowing Garcia II to reinforce his power with Dutch support. Garcia helped establish the Capuchins, strengthened direct relations with Rome, but in 1648, the Dutch abandoned Angola and Kongo
99
Summarise the 3rd Luso-Kongolese war?
Garcia was forced to surrender Luanda and the mining deposits to Portugal. in 1657, governor de Sousa Chichorro exploited a rebellion against Garcia II, sending a large army to aid the rebels. Garcia died in 1661 so his successor Antonio captured the crown. Antonio opposed the prospecting of the mines so Portugal attacked at the battle of Mbwilla in 1665
100
What was the battle of Mbwilla?
Antonio led a Kongo army of 70,000, which was virtually wiped out. Antonio was decapitated.
101
What were the consequences of the battle of Mbwilla?
Portugal realised there were no gold mines so in 1667, an order was given to withdraw from Kongo. Civil war between rival claimants broke out, there were 15 altogether.
102
Where did Afonso obtain his slaves from?
war- they were foreign captives e.g. he sent Manuel 410 slaves from wars in 1512
103
How did Kongo's elites acquire slaves under Afonso?
purchased them at slave markets, received them as income from taxes, with each household paying 1 slave and large households paying as many as 3 slaves
104
How did Afonso try to restrict the slave trade?
banned the sale of female slaves and freeborn Kongos, asking Portugal to enforce this in 1514 to little avail
complained to Joao in 1526 about kidnapping of Kongo subjects and even children of elites
105
Why did the slave trade cause a decline in Luso-Kongolese relations after 1543?
- in 1548, Kongo officials conducted an inquest into Portuguese illegal trading at Luanda and sent it to Lisbon
- large scale enslavement of free-born Kongos, including members of the royal family after Jaga invasion in 1568
-
106
What problems arose in the 16th century about obtaining slaves?
As demand grew, the range of crimes that could result in enslavement grew to meet this and eventually rival groups began enslaving each other, causing depopulation
e.g. people could be enslaved for failing to show due respect to the King. Entire villages could face enslavement if a villager was convicted of a crime
107
summarise Kongo and Portugal's relationship
Kongo wanted European style education and technical progress but Portugal formed a colonial relationship, extracting resources
108
Why did Kongo become impoverished by trade with the Portuguese?
the goods they sold to the Portuguese retained and grew in value, like gold and slaves, who worked to increase wealth, whereas what they got in return lost its value
109
What currency did Kongo use?
Nzimbu shells for domestic transactions, slaves for international
110
How did slavery cause internal instability?
It fuelled factional struggles, with successful claimants enslaving the families of their rivals. It caused depopulation and provided armies for factions
111
By how much a year did the population decline after the 18th century?
4% a year
112
What happened to Mbanza Kongo in 1666?
The Count of Soyo sacked it, carrying off booty and a large number of slaves
113
what contributed to Kongo's decline?
- depopulation
- Soyo's, Mbamba's, Mbata's and Nsundi's independence
- mbamba was overrun with slave raiding bands
- civil strife and succession disputes
-
African kingdoms (OCR)
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