The non-verbal elements of speech that add meaning beyond the words themselves, focusing on how something is said, not what is said
Paralanguage
A direct comparison between two unlike things using “like” or “as.”
Simile
Figures of Speech
Purpose: To create a vivid, relatable image by linking an abstract idea to a concrete one.
Ex. “Her smile was as bright as the sun.”
An indirect, implied comparison stating one thing is another.
Metaphor
Figures of Speech
Purpose: To assert a powerful, symbolic identity, making the description more profound.
Ex. “The classroom was a zoo.”
An extreme, obvious exaggeration not meant to be taken literally.
Hyperbole
Figures of Speech
Purpose: To emphasize a point, add humor, or convey strong emotion.
Ex. “I’ve told you a million times to clean your room.”
Presenting something as less important or severe than it actually is.
Understatement
Figures of Speech
Purpose: To be humorous, sarcastic, or to draw attention by contrast.
Ex. After a hurricane: “It’s a bit windy today.”
A word that phonetically imitates or suggests the sound it describes.
Onomatopoeia
Figures of Speech
Purpose: To make writing more vivid, immersive, and sensory. It enhances storytelling by creating immediate, engaging sound effects
Ex. mechanical noises (clang, buzz), impact sounds (boom, splat), and nature sounds (hiss, drip).
A deliberate understatement using a negative to affirm a positive.
Litotes
Figures of Speech
Purpose: To soften a statement, be ironic, or politely emphasize by downplaying.
Ex. “Winning the award was not bad.” (Meaning: it was fantastic!)
A traditional, experience-focused format listing work history in reverse chronological order, ideal for demonstrating career progression.
Chronological Resume
(Also known as the Reverse-Chronological resume)
Main types of Resume
Best For: The most common and preferred format by employers. Ideal for candidates with a strong, linear work history in a specific field, showing clear career progression.
Structure: Work Experience is the first main section after the summary, listing jobs in reverse chronological order (most recent first).
Key Feature: Emphasizes a steady career path, job titles, companies, and tenure. Can highlight gaps in employment.
A skills-based format that groups abilities and achievements into themed sections, ideal for career changers or those with employment gaps.
Functional Resume
(Also known as the Skills-Based resume)
Main types of Resume
Best For: Career changers, new graduates with limited experience, those with employment gaps, or individuals with diverse, non-linear job histories.
Structure: A “Skills” or “Areas of Expertise” section is the focal point, with bullet points highlighting achievements grouped by skill category (e.g., “Project Management,” “Analytical Skills”).
Key Feature: De-emphasizes work history (which is listed briefly at the end). Focuses on transferable skills and abilities rather than when and where you worked.
A blended format that highlights relevant skills at the top, followed by a chronological work history, ideal for showcasing both capabilities and experience.
Combination/Hybrid Resume
Main types of Resume
Best For: Candidates with a strong skill set who want to highlight both their relevant abilities and their work history. Good for senior professionals, those with specialized skills, or applying to a role requiring a very specific skill profile.
Structure: Begins with a detailed professional summary and a robust “Core Competencies” or “Skills” section, followed by a chronological work history.
Key Feature: Blends the best of both formats. It allows you to lead with the skills the job demands while still providing the trusted timeline of your employment.
The basic act of uttering meaningful words and sentences that convey literal meaning.
Locutionary Force
Types of Speech Act Theory
Referential Value (Meaning of code)
Focus: The Words & Their Meaning
What it is: The “saying” itself. It’s the propositional, grammatical content.
Example: Saying the words: “It is cold in here.”
Analogy: The dictionary definition and grammar of the sentence.
The act performed in saying something, such as stating, asking, commanding, or promising, which carries a communicative force.
Illocutionary Force
Types of Speech Act Theory
Performative Function (Implication of Speaker)
Focus: The Speaker’s Intention & Action
What it is: The core “speech act.” This is where the real “doing” happens.
Example: By saying “It is cold in here,” you might be performing the act of: complaining, requesting (to close the window), or observing.
Types: Promising, ordering, warning, inviting, declaring, asking.
Analogy: The purpose or “move” in the conversation game.
The act performed by saying something, defined by its effect on the listener, such as persuading, inspiring, or frightening them.
Perlocutionary
Types of Speech Act Theory
Perceived Effect (Inference by addresee)
Focus: The Listener’s Reaction & Outcome
What it is: The consequence or result of speaking.
Example: Because you said “It is cold in here,” the listener might: feel guilty, get up and close the window, or agree with you.
Analogy: The real-world result or impact.
A word that names a person, place, thing, or idea.
Noun
Parts of Speech
Example Words: teacher, Paris, book, happiness, dog
Example Sentence: The teacher read a book in Paris.
A word that takes the place of a noun.
Pronoun
Parts of Speech
Example Words: I, you, he, she, it, they, we, me, him, her
Example Sentence: Maria is nice because she helped me.
A word that describes an action or a state of being.
Verb
Parts of Speech
Example Words: run, eat, is, are, think, become
Example Sentence: The birds sing and are happy.
A word that describes a noun or pronoun.
Adjective
Parts of Speech
Example Words: blue, happy, loud, three, hot, fluffy
Example Sentence: The fluffy, brown dog ate the hot food.
A word that describes a verb, adjective, or another adverb (tells how, when, where).
Adverb
Parts of Speech
Example Words: quickly, very, tomorrow, loudly, quite
Example Sentence: She sang beautifully and very loudly.
A word that shows the relationship between a noun and another word (often location or time).
Prepositon
Parts of Speech
Example Words: in, on, at, under, behind, before, to
Example Sentence: The cat hid under the bed during the storm.
A word that connects words, phrases, or sentences.
Conjuction
Parts of Speech
Example Words: and, but, or, so, because, if
Example Sentence: I wanted cake, but I ate an apple because it is healthy.
A word that expresses strong emotion or surprise.
Interjection
Parts of Speech
Example Words: Wow! Ouch! Hey! Oh no! Yay!
Example Sentence: Wow! That is a huge pizza. Ouch! That hurt.
Parts of Speech
- Noun
- Verb
- Adjective
- Adverb
- Pronoun
- Preposition
- Conjunction
- Inter
- Interjection
??? do not express action. Instead, they act like an equal sign (=) between the subject and the predicative nominative.
Linking Verbs
Examples of Linking Verbs
- To be (most common verb)
- Am
- Is
- Are
- Was
- Were
- Be / Being / Been
Linking verbs do not express action. Instead, they act like an equal sign ($=$) between the subject and the predicative nominative.
