What is learning?
The process of acquiring new information or behaviours through experience.
What is classical conditioning?
A form of learning in which 2 stimuli are paired together to produce a new, learned response.
What is association?
When a neutral stimulus produces a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally produces a response (i.e. popcorn being paired with going to the movies).
Describe the conditioning process and define the variables involved.
Neutral stimulus (NS): a stimulus that has no effect on its own.
Unconditioned stimulus (US): a stimulus that naturally produces an unconditioned response (UR).
When the NS and the US are repeatedly paired together, you will be conditioned to like the NS more, and that feeling will become a conditioned response (CR), and the NS will become a conditioned stimulus (CS).
Apply the conditioning variables to Pavlov’s dog experiment.
Before conditioning: food is the US, salivation is the UR. The bell is the NS, and evokes no response.
During conditioning: the NS and the US paired together, and evokes the UR.
After conditioning: the bell alone triggers salivation, and becomes the CS. Salivation is now a CR.
What is acquisition?
The initial stage of learning in which the US and NS are paired, creating a CS.
What is extinction (CC)?
The gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response when the CS is repeatedly presented without the US (i.e. the bell without the food).
What is spontaneous recovery?
The reappearance of an extinct response after a period of non-exposure to the CS.
What is the renewal effect?
If a response is extinguished in a different environment than it was acquired, the extinguished response may reappear if the subject encounters the conditioned stimulus in the original environment where the acquisition took place.
What is second order conditioning?
When a CS is paired with a new NS, resulting in a new CR. This second order stimulus is often weaker than the first association.
What is stimulus generalization?
When an organism has learned a response and responds in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original one
*i.e. Little Albert
What is stimulus discrimination?
This occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus can discriminate the specific stimulus from other similar stimuli.
*Pavlov’s dog have the highest salivation response at a specific frequency of the bell ringing.
What are some common applications of classical conditioning in the real world?
Advertisers/app makers try and associate their products with good feelings, so people invest in them more.
Classical conditioning is used in exposure therapy to treat phobias and anxiety, it makes us alert to loud sounds (i.e. a fire alarm), and plays a role in lifelong taste aversions.
What are some critiques of classical conditioning? (2 main ones)
Humans are not conditioned the same way, we have subjectivity that disrupts us from being classically conditioned. We are predisposed to learn in different ways.
The CRs can also become quite complicated. In Pavlov’s example, the dogs only salivated when the assistants brought them food, as that was their only job. They were able to learn that Pavlov himself was always at the lab and may not give them food, so they did not salivate.
What is operant conditioning?
Aka instrumental learning. A form of learning where behaviour is influenced by its consequences. It is focused on whether behaviours will be repeated based on their consequences.
What is Thorndike’s Law of Effect?
If a response to a situation results in a favorable effect, then the response is likely to be repeated. Responses followed by unfavorable effects will not be repeated.
What was Skinner’s contribution to operant conditioning?
He coined the universal principles of behaviours and consequences.
He developed the Skinner Box/the Operant Chamber, where he observed that mice would figure out ways to repeatedly press a lever to get more food, even when the tasks become more complicated.
What is reinforcement? Define positive and negative reinforcement.
When an event following an action/response increases the organism’s tendency to repeat that response in the future.
Positive reinforcement: When something favorable is added after you complete a task.
Negative reinforcement: When something unpleasant is removed after you complete a task.
What are some reinforcers? Define each one. (4)
- Delayed
- Immediate
- Primary
- Secondary/conditioned
What is punishment? Define positive and negative punishment.
When an event following a response decreases the organism’s tendency to repeat the response in the future.
Positive punishment: an undesired consequence occurs after the action and weakens the behaviour.
Negative punishment: the removal of a desired stimulus that weakens the behaviour.
What are some problems with using physical punishment?
- leads to fear and aggressive behaviours in the child
- negatively reinforces parents to keep doing it
- unsustainable long-term
What is stimulus control?
We don’t behave the same way to every stimulus, our actions are dependent on the context.
What is extinction (OC)?
The weakening and disappearance of a response because it is no longer followed by reinforcement.
What is shaping?
Learning that results from the reinforcement of successive steps to a final desired behaviour.
