Midterm 1

Question 1

What are the 3 principles of the scientific method?

Answer 1

Curiosity, Skepticism, Humility

Question 2

What is rationalism, and who was a proponent?

Answer 2

Rationalism: solving a problem by thinking it through.

Aristotle
- Body-psyche relationship, separation between the mind and the heart
- No scientific evidence, answering questions through observation

Question 3

What is dualism, and who was a proponent?

Answer 3

Dualism: the mind and the body are separate entities.

Descartes
- Humans are like automatons, but we also have an immaterial ‘soul’ (the mind)

Question 4

What is double aspect theory, and who was a proponent?

Answer 4

Double aspect theory: the mind and the body are two different terms to describe similar processes.

Spinoza
- The mental world can be examined just like the physical world, and everything has a physical basis (matter and energy)
- ‘Monist’

Question 5

What is empiricism, and who were the proponents?

Answer 5

Locke and Hume and Empiricism: basing knowledge on the actual world, and recording observations in objective ways. We can only learn more about the world if we interact with it.

Question 6

Who was the proponent of psychophysiology?

Answer 6

Von Helmholtz
- Examined the difference between raw sensory info and how we process sensory info

Question 7

What is perception?

Answer 7

The organization and interpretation of sensory information.

Question 8

What is psychophysics, and who was the proponent?

Answer 8

The relationship between physical and mental realms.

Weber
- Objectively measured human perception
- i.e. brightness and number of photons: twice as bright does not mean twice as many photons, need many more photons for us to perceive it as twice as bright.

Question 9

What is structuralism, and who were the proponents?

Answer 9

Focused on the sub-components of the mind. The idea that people could ‘look into their thoughts’ via introspection. A European school of thought.

Wundt and Titchener
- basically were doing rationalism as they didn’t have microscopes

Question 10

What did Charles Darwin contribute to psychology?

Answer 10

Origin of Species
- natural selection and favorable traits that depend on the environment
- provided proof that emotion is useful and present across all species (otherwise would have been bred out)

Question 11

What is functionalism and who was the proponent?

Answer 11

Focused on the evolutionary function of mental processes.

William James
- wrote a book, but still no way of objectively measuring the mind

Question 12

What were Sigmund Freud’s 3 main contributions to psychology?

Answer 12

1. Mental processes don’t always reach our conscious perception
2. Talk therapy/psychoanalysis
3. First recognition of mental illness

Question 13

What is behaviourism?

Answer 13

The scientific study of observable behaviour without references to mental processes. Criticized both structuralism and functionalism for their subjectivity.

Question 14

What is classical conditioning, and who is known for it?

Answer 14

Learning by association.

Pavlov
- salivation in dogs

Watson and Raynor
- “little Albert”

Question 15

What is operant conditioning, and who was known for it?

Answer 15

Learning by consequence.

Skinner
- pigeons
- influential on parenting and teaching techniques

Question 16

What are the assumptions of behaviourism? (3)

Answer 16

1. Only objectively measurable things can be studied
2. Mind starts out as a blank slate (tabula rasa)
3. Behavioural determinism

*we are a product of our environment

Question 17

What is Humanism and who were the proponents?

Answer 17

Human-centered research that revived the interest in mental processes, and the growth potential of humans.

Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow
- i.e. hierarchy of needs

Question 18

What was the cognitive revolution, and when did it take place?

Answer 18

In the 1960s, there was a revived interest in mental processes. Mental processes can be inferred by observing behaviour.

Question 19

What is cognitive psychology?

Answer 19

Investigates mental processing. Looks into how information is processed, stored, and remembered.

Question 20

What is cognitive neuroscience?

Answer 20

The scientific study of cognition and behaviour by looking at the brain and neural functioning.

Question 21

What is the modern definition of psychology?

Answer 21

The study of mental processes and behaviour.

Question 22

What is behaviour?

Answer 22

Any action that can be observed or recorded.

Question 23

What are mental processes?

Answer 23

Internal experiences that are subjective. They are too hard to objectively measure.

Question 24

What does WEIRD stand for?

Answer 24

White, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic
- populations that research is typically centered around
- why cultural and gender psychology is important
- “universal” studies may not actually be universal

Question 25

What is positive psychology, and who pioneered it?

Answer 25

Studies human flourishing and living a good life. Martin Seligman - meaningful life - how do we be happy and satisfied

Question 26

What is evolutionary psychology?

Answer 26

Focuses on how humans are alike due to common biology and evolutionary history. - how are our mental processes related to evolutionary history?

Question 27

What are behaviour genetics?

Answer 27

The differences related to differing genes and environment.

Question 28

Can nature and nurture be examined independently?

Answer 28

No. They work together. - i.e. who produces the sound: the violin, or the violinist?

Question 29

What are psychology's 3 levels of analysis?

Answer 29

1. Biological influences 2. Psychological influences 3. Socio-cultural influences

Question 30

How strong is authority in getting information, and what are its problems?

Answer 30

It is the weakest form of information. It is... 1. easily exploitable 2. Often overextended 3. people lie and/or bullshit

Question 31

What is the difference between lying and bullshitting?

Answer 31

Liars care about the truth and deliberately misrepresent it. Bullshitters are indifferent to the truth and will spread any information.

Question 32

What is intuition, how strong is it, and what are its problems?

Answer 32

Intuition comes naturally and is based off anecdotal experience. It is good to have in your toolbox, but it is often wrong. Problems 1. Illusory correlation 2. Correlation does not equal causation 3. People are more confident when they know nothing 4. Illusions about probability 5. Biases

Question 33

What is the gambler's fallacy?

Answer 33

When we see 2 things that are 'linked' by probability, when in reality, they are not.

Question 34

What is the Dunning-Kruger effect?

Answer 34

When we know little to nothing, we are the most confident. When we are learning, we have low confidence. When we are experts, we regain confidence, but never to the levels of which we began.

Question 35

What is confirmation bias?

Answer 35

When we deliberately seek information that proves what we think is right, and do not seek information that disproves us.

Question 36

What is hindsight bias?

Answer 36

The idea that we look back on things and think that we 'should have' done something, even when things happen completely at random.

Question 37

What are post-hoc explanations?

Answer 37

When mastery of a skill does not translate into accurate teaching/explaining of something.

Question 38

What is observation, and what are its problems?

Answer 38

The best way to gather information about the world, and a crucial part to empiricism. However, it is not enough on its own to draw concllusions. Problems 1. Case studies and small sample sizes (lobotomy example)

Question 39

What are the components of skepticism?

Answer 39

1. Question authority and intuition 2. Question your senses 3. Question knowledge and beliefs 4. Caution against extreme/infinite skepticism

Question 40

What is extreme postmodernity?

Answer 40

The only thing we truly know is that we (ourselves) exist.

Question 41

What are the steps to the scientific method?

Answer 41

1. Make observations 2. Think of interesting questions 3. Formulate a hypothesis 4. Develop testable predictions 5. Gather data to test predictions 6. Alter/update/refine/reject hypotheses 7. Develop general theories

Question 42

What are the principles to good science? (explain each one)

Answer 42

1. Materialism 2. Universalism 3. Communality 4. Disinterestedness 5. Organized skepticism

Question 43

What is scientific theory?

Answer 43

Something that describes a phenomenon based on a bunch of scientific information.

Question 44

What are properties of a good theory?

Answer 44

1. It is testable/falsifiable 2. It can generate new knowledge in other areas 3. It is parsimonious

Question 45

What is pseudoscience?

Answer 45

Something that looks scientific on the surface, but does not follow the scientific method. Usually used to market something - buzz words that are not backed up by evidence, vague claims, no peer review process.

Question 46

What are the goals of psychological research?

Answer 46

1. Describe behaviour 2. Predict behaviour 3. Determine the causes of behaviour 4. Controlling/influencing behaviour

Question 47

What is basic research?

Answer 47

Research that is foundational; helps answers the questions posed by the goals of psychological research.

Question 48

What is applied research?

Answer 48

Testing out questions to answer specific questions. We need to know the mechanisms/have basic research before we can solve new problems.

Question 49

What are variables?

Answer 49

Things that vary. Can literally be anything.

Question 50

What is a conceptual variable?

Answer 50

A theoretical psychological construct which do not have direct methods of measurement.

Question 51

What is a measured variable?

Answer 51

A variable we can objectively measure.

Question 52

What is operationalization? What is an operational variable?

Answer 52

When a measurable stands in for a conceptual variable. The new variable is called an operational variable.

Question 53

What is an independent variable?

Answer 53

A variable that the researcher manipulates - different conditions with only one change (i.e. doses of a drug).

Question 54

What is the dependent variable?

Answer 54

The variable the researcher is measuring (participant response and behaviour). These are usually the operational variables.

Question 55

What are situational variables?

Answer 55

Variables that are brought about by the testing conditions.

Question 56

What are participant variables?

Answer 56

Variables the participant carries with them into the experiment.

Question 57

What is random assignment?

Answer 57

When participants are randomly assigned to different levels of the IV.

Question 58

What are the outcomes/issues with a quasi/non experimental study?

Answer 58

We don't have a true IV, so can only establish correlational relationships, NOT cause and effect. This type of experiment does not tell you the nature of the relationship, and confounders may exist.

Question 59

What are the outcomes of an experimental study?

Answer 59

Experimental studies have a true IV with random assignment, and you can establish cause and effect.

Question 60

What needs to happen in order to determine causality?

Answer 60

1. Cause must precede the effect in time 2. Cause cannot happen without the effect and vice versa 3. There is no other plausible explanation for the relationship

Question 61

What is a confounding variable?

Answer 61

An uncontrollable variable that varies along with the IV.

Question 62

Explain the differences between single blind, double blind, and open label studies.

Answer 62

Single blind -> participants are blind to the 'dose' they are given. Double blind -> both the participant and the researcher are blind to the 'dose' given. Open label -> everyone knows everything (used for experimental drugs for serious conditions)

Question 63

Why do we use animal models for research?

Answer 63

1. For studies that cannot ethically be done on humans 2. There are no other alternatives available 3. Animal data usually transfers well to humans

Question 64

What does r^2 represent?

Answer 64

The shared variance across variables. X% of the variance in one variable is explained by the variation of the other variable.

Question 65

What is construct validity?

Answer 65

If there is good construct validity, then the operational variable/the DV is truly representing the concept we are trying to measure.

Question 66

What is face validity?

Answer 66

On its face, the DV measures the concept well. Based on intuition and pre-existing knowledge.

Question 67

What is content validity?

Answer 67

All measured variables are measuring all the content of the conceptual variable.

Question 68

What are concurrent and convergent validity?

Answer 68

How well a new concept/test/variable lines up with an existing one. i.e. IQ test example

Question 69

What is discriminant validity?

Answer 69

A variable does not correlate with any other unrelated variables.

Question 70

What is predictive validity?

Answer 70

The DV can predict something about the individual's future behaviour.

Question 71

What is internal validity?

Answer 71

How well the study is designed within the lab setting. The relationship between the IV and the DV can be trusted, and there is no confounders.

Question 72

What is external validity?

Answer 72

How well the study relates to the rest of the world.

Question 73

What are reliability and accuracy?

Answer 73

Accuracy is another word for validity. Reliability is the reproducibility and consistency of the measurement.

Question 74

Is behaviour coded by genetics? If not, how does behaviour develop?

Answer 74

It is not coded by genes. It is shaped by genetics (i.e. development of our nervous systems) and by our environment. We need to actually interact with the environment to develop behaviours.

Question 75

What are heritability estimates?

Answer 75

They measure the shared variance of something due to variance in genes. It is a correlational thing, NOT causational.

Question 76

What is the heritability estimate for IQ? What about number of arms? How can heritability estimates change?

Answer 76

0.5 for IQ and close to 0 for number of arms (explained mostly by environment and life experiences). Heritability estimates can change based on SES (for example). IQ in richer people has a higher heritability estimate because they have more resources and similar people surrounding them. Poorer people have a lower heritability estimate for IQ as they are exposed to a variety of experiences.