What is negative reinforcement, and give an example.
It’s the removal of an aversive stimulus following a behavior to increase that behavior’s frequency.
Example: Students don’t have to write an essay if they complete weekly homework → removal of essay = ↑ homework completion.
As recall delay increases, what happens to primacy and recency effects?
Recency effect decreases; primacy effect increases — a recency-to-primacy shift occurs with longer delays.
Constructing a phrase using the first letters of words to remember them (e.g., “My Very Educated Mother…”) illustrates which mnemonic?
Acrostic – phrase/rhyme built from initial letters (vs. acronym = single new word).
After learning List B, participants recall fewer words from List A. What is this?
Retroactive interference – new learning disrupts recall of earlier material.
Flashing a 12-letter grid for 50 ms tests which type of memory?
Iconic (visual sensory) memory, lasting <1 sec.
Salespeople get a bonus after every sixth sale. What schedule is this?
Fixed-ratio — reinforcement after a set number of responses (not based on time).
Betsy is paid for homework and violin practice; payment stops for homework. What happens?
She’ll shift behavior toward the still-reinforced activity (violin) — allocation proportional to reinforcement rate.
Which reinforcement schedule produces the most extinction-resistant behavior?
Variable ratio — unpredictable reward frequency sustains responding (e.g., gambling).
“If a child’s crying gains attention, it’ll recur.” Who’d agree?
Thorndike – behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are more likely to repeat.
Present CS1 before US until CR forms; later pair CS1 + CS2 with US → CS2 fails to elicit CR. Why?
Blocking — prior learning of CS1 prevents new CS–US association; CS2 adds no new predictive info.
What principle underlies shaping?
Reinforcing successive approximations toward the target behavior.
To reduce drinking via in vivo aversive counterconditioning, when apply shock?
Use delay conditioning — present CS (drink) slightly before and overlapping with US (shock).
How do phobias develop from a behavioral view?
Neutral stimulus paired with fear-eliciting US → fear becomes classically conditioned CR to that neutral CS.
From an operant perspective, complex behaviors develop through what process?
Behavioral chaining — each response reinforces the previous one, forming a sequence.
In the multi-store model, memory for info from past few hours–days is called what?
Recent long-term memory, between short-term and remote memory.
Avoiding a feared stimulus relieves anxiety. What learning process maintains this?
Negative reinforcement (operant component of the two-factor theory).
According to Beck, when can maladaptive cognitions be modified?
Only when the client is emotionally aroused and engaged in the problematic situation.
In Tommy’s case, his mother’s yelling signals that crying will yield attention. What is the yelling?
A discriminative stimulus (SD) — signals that reinforcement is available for a behavior.
Using a high-probability behavior (e.g., phone calls) to reinforce a low-probability one (e.g., studying) illustrates what?
Premack Principle — “do X before Y.”
Masaaki’s parents say “moo” or “neigh” to help him label animals correctly. What are they using?
Prompting — providing cues to elicit correct response.
According to Lewinsohn, what causes depression?
Not getting enough rewards for your actions — when positive reinforcement drops, good behaviors fade, and mood sinks.
A mother yells whenever her son runs indoors, but running increases. Why?
Positive reinforcement — yelling functions as attention, increasing running.
Which therapy uses Socratic questioning and hypothesis testing between therapist and client?
Beck’s Cognitive Therapy (CBT) — “collaborative empiricism.”
A student smokes to relieve anxiety. What maintains the smoking?
Negative reinforcement — removal of anxiety increases smoking behavior.
