Classical conditioning
- Ivan Pavlov
- events which occur together are associated and acquire a similar meaning.
- responds to stimuli
Operant conditioning
- B F Skinner
- people learn by operating (interacting) with their environments.
- It involves reinforcement and punishment
- response to behaviour
Observational model
- is learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others.
- It is a form of social learning which takes various forms, based on various processes.
Cognitive model
-The cognitive model describes how people’s perceptions of, or spontaneous thoughts about, situations influence their emotional, behavioral (and often physiological) reactions.
Extinction
-If a conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus then the conditioned response will disappear
Reinforcement
- operant conditioning
- reward
Fixed-ratio reinforcement
a reward occurs after a behavior is repeated x number of times
Fixed-interval reinforcemeent
a reward occurs after a fixed amount of time
Variable interval reinforcement
a reward after a varying amount of time
Generalisation
This is the extension of the conditioned response from the original conditioned stimulus to other similar stimuli
Secondary reinforcement
(aka conditioned reinforcers)
- not innately appreciated and people have to learn to like them
- Secondary reinforcers include things such as money.
Primary reinforcement
instinctual desires such as food, water and sex
Incubation
This occurs in fear responses.
-When a person is exposed to a stimulus which causes fear, the fear response can increase over time due to brief exposures to the conditioned stimulus
Stimulus preparedness
-is a concept developed to explain why certain associations are learned more readily than others. For example, phobias related to survival, such as snakes, spiders, and heights, are much more common and much easier to induce in the laboratory than other kinds of fears.
Escape conditioning
- classical and operant conditioning.
- an aversive situation is removed after a response.
- It is a form of negative reinforcement.
Avoidance conditioning
-the person learns to respond to a signal in a way that avoids an aversive stimulus before it arrives
Reciprocal inhibition
The technique is used for treating phobias, where a state incompatible with anxiety (such as anger or relaxation) is evoked at the same time as an anxiety-provoking stimulus is presented. A new response to the stimulus is thereby learned.
Habituation
- There is a decrease in response to a stimulus over time (overtime you pay less attention to repeated sounds in your environment).
- If the stimulus is removed for a period of time and then reintroduced then the response will reappear at full strength. This is referred to as spontaneous recovery.
Shaping
- reward successive, increasingly accurate approximations to the behaviour to achieve required goal.
Chaining
-Chaining involves breaking a complex task into smaller more manageable sections.
Cueing
Cueing is the use of signals to indicate that a certain behavior is desired or that a certain behavior should stop” (Ormrod, 517)
Psychology of punishment
In operant conditioning, punishment is any change in a human or animal’s surroundings that occurs after a given behavior or response which reduces the likelihood of that behavior occurring again in the future.
As with reinforcement, it is the behavior, not the animal, that is punished.
