schema
- a plan, outline, or model”.
- a pattern of thought that organizes categories of information and relationships among them
prototype
refers to what is perceived to be a complete image of something with all expected qualities and characteristics present
Deductive reasoning
- Deductive reasoning is a form of reasoning where two or more facts or assumptions are applied to a specific event.
- e.g concluding that the sparrow lays eggs, based on knowing that all birds lay eggs, and that sparrows are a form of bird.
Inductive reason
-inductive reasoning moves from specific instances into a generalized conclusion
Descartes
“I think therefore
I am.” This comes, of course, from Descartes’ Discourse on the Method (1637)
Availabilty heuristic
- the general tendency to make judgements and decisions on the basis of information that is available in memory is known as the availability
heuristic
-(Chater & Oaksford, 1999; Tversky & Kahneman, 1974)
heuristic
- heuristics are simple, efficient rules which people often use to form judgments and make decisions.
- They are mental shortcuts that usually involve focusing on one aspect of a complex problem and ignoring others.
Cognitive errors
The reliance on heuristics has long been thought to be a source of cognitive errors (Tversky & Kahneman, 1973, 1974)
Satisficing
-most people arrive at reasonable conclusions and make good decisions despite cognitive errors and bias. -Herbert Simon
Gestalt laws of grouping.
These are perceptual laws that all centre on the idea that humans are biased to perceive whole objects, rather than parts.
Productive thinking
- productive thinking is solving a problem with an insight
- Wertheimer, 1959
Insight problems
-are bursts of ideas, clarity, or correct solutions that often seem to arrive suddenly in the mind.
Reproductive thinking
reproductive thinking in problem-solving refers to problem-solving by remembered examples and remembered rules
Dual process account or dual systems theory.
-assumes that there are two cognitive and neuropsychological systems that underlie the thinking process.
-Evans (2003, 2008) : System
1 and System 2, or holistic and analytic (Evans, 2003, 2008; Evans & Stanovich, 2013; Nisbett & Miyamoto,
2005; Nisbett, Peng, Choi, & Norenzayan, 2001; Norman & Brooks, 1997; Sloman, 1996).
System 1 in dual systems theory
System 1 are a cluster of structures and functions that may operate with relative autonomy, and the functions and behaviours ascribed need not interact with other systems
System 2 in dual systems theory
-the decision-making process is one
that requires a slower, more deliberative approach, a consideration of many outcomes and scenarios, the careful and explicit weighing of evidence, and a conscious decision.
Algorithm
An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure that will always produce a correct solution.
While an algorithm guarantees an accurate answer, it is not always the best approach to problem-solving.
This strategy is not practical for many situations because it can be so time-consuming.
Heuristics
A heuristic is a mental rule-of-thumb strategy that may or may not work in certain situations.
- do not always guarantee a correct solution.
- allow people to simplify complex problems and reduce the total number of possible solutions to a more manageable set.
Trial and error
- involves trying a number of different solutions and ruling out those that do not work.
- This approach can be a good option if you have a very limited number of options available.
Insight
In some cases, the solution to a problem can appear as a sudden insight.
- you mayrealize that the problem is actually similar to something that you have dealt with in the past
- in most cases, the underlying mental processes that lead to insight happen outside of awareness.
Functional fixedness
This term refers to the tendency to view problems only in their customary manner.
- stops you seeing different options that might be available to find a solution.
Irrelevant or misleading information
When you are trying to solve a problem, it is important to distinguish between information that is relevant to the issue and irrelevant data that can lead to faulty solutions. When a problem is very complex, the easier it becomes to focus on misleading or irrelevant information
Assumptions
Assumptions: When dealing with a problem, people often make assumptions about the constraints and obstacles that prevent certain solutions.
Mental set
- the tendency people have to only use solutions that have worked in the past rather than looking for alternative ideas.
- A mental set can often work as a heuristic, making it a useful problem-solving tool. However, mental sets can also lead to inflexibility, making it more difficult to find effective solutions.
