What was the aim of Bransford and Johnson’s study in 1972?
Investigate how contextual knowledge affects comprehension and recall
The study explored the role of prior knowledge during encoding.
In Bransford and Johnson’s study, when did comprehension and recall improve?
When relevant context was given at encoding
No significant benefits were observed when context was provided after encoding.
What did Hyde and Jenkins (1969, 1973) aim to investigate?
How different processing tasks affect memory recall
The study compared intentional vs incidental learning.
According to Hyde and Jenkins, which processing led to the best recall?
Semantic processing
Phonological tasks produced moderate recall, while perceptual tasks resulted in the poorest recall.
What is the core idea of Craik and Lockhart’s (1972) theory?
Memory is influenced by how deeply information is processed
Not by storage systems or rehearsal alone.
What are the two types of processing identified by Craik and Lockhart?
- Shallow - physical/sensory features
- Deep - semantic/cognitive meaning
Deeper semantic processing leads to better recall.
What did Bousfield (1953) investigate regarding recall?
Whether people organise information during recall
Participants clustered their recall by categories despite random presentation.
What was the conclusion of Bower et al. (1969) regarding organisation at encoding?
Organisation at encoding significantly boosts memory
Structured material acts as a powerful mnemonic aid.
What did Tulving and Pearlstone (1966) aim to investigate?
How retrieval cues affect memory recall
Especially for semantic categories.
What were the findings of Tulving and Pearlstone regarding cued recall?
Cued recall led to significantly better performance than free recall
More specific cues were most effective in boosting recall.
What does the encoding specificity principle state?
Recall improves when cues match the original encoding context
Memory is context dependent.
What did Karpicke and Roediger (2008) investigate?
How study vs test repetition affects long term recall
Focused on foreign vocabulary learning.
What was the conclusion of Karpicke and Roediger’s study?
Retrieval practice strengthens memory more than restudying
Active recall is a powerful tool for long term learning.
What did Loftus, Miller, and Burns (1978) study?
How misleading information affects memory accuracy
Explored whether post-event misinformation can distort original memories.
What did Bekerian and Bowers (1983) find regarding misinformation?
Misinformation doesn’t overwrite original memory
Two separate memory traces may exist.
What was the aim of Lindsay and Johnson (1989)?
Investigate whether misinformation affects memory when presented before the original event
Explored the role of source misattribution in memory errors.
What did Roediger and McDermott (1995) explore?
How semantic associations can lead to false memories
Introduced the DRM paradigm for studying false memory formation.
What was the conclusion of Henkel’s (2014) study on photographing objects?
General photo taking can impair memory
Focused photography can enhance encoding and preserve memory.
