Lecture 4

Question 1

What are behavioural decisions?

Answer 1

Response of individuals to current internal constraints and external conditions

Question 2

What is an example of a chipmunk making behavioural decisions based on Internal constraints and external conditions?

Answer 2

Can take a chipmunk and expose it to threat and it will hide, bribe it with food and then expose it to a cue and it will continue to forage.

Question 3

What is an example of a Siberian Hamster making behavioural decisions based on Internal constraints and external conditions?

Answer 3

Present a Siberian hamster out of mating season with a risk, they will burrow and hide, but during mating season, they ignore risks bc lost opportunity of mating is massive in Siberian Hamsters (24 hours once a year, so if it misses this, then they will likely never reproduce)
-> So they make a behavioural trade-off

Question 4

What do responses of individuals to current internal constraints and external conditions (behavioural decisions) imply (4 things)?

Answer 4

1) Behaviour of animals is adapted through natural selection
2) Behaviour is flexible, most plastic of all phenotypes
3) All behaviour has some associated cost and benefit, can be measured and modeled
4) Individuals should respond in a pattern that will maximize benefits associated with that response and/or minimize costs associated with that response

Question 5

Why couldn’t traditional approaches fully explain flexible behaviour patterns?

Answer 5

Bc the use of ‘motivation’ didn’t fully explain why we observe flexible behaviour patterns; there is no linked b/w ‘motivation’ and adaptive value (functional benefit of these behaviours)

Question 6

What did Hamilton and Maynard-Smith both argue in regards to flexible bahviour?

Answer 6

They both argued for the use of economic theory to explain and predict behaviour: cost/benefit analysis applied to making predictions on animal behaviour.

Question 7

How can game theory model be used to predict behaviour?

Answer 7

• Study of mathematical models of strategic interactions
• Examines how individuals and entities, referred to as players, strategize and make decisions in competitive environments
  -> Success of a behavioural response is dependent on response of others responses

Question 8

What are optimality models based on?

Answer 8

They’re based on the assumed (or calculated) costs and benefits of behaviour a pattern.
- Costs = both constraints and conditions
- Benefits = immediate or life time fitness

Question 9

Give 3 reasons why we use models?

Answer 9

1) Allows us to generalize things
2) Formalize hypothesis
3) Make testable predictions

Question 10

what are the defined costs and benefits in the example of parental starlings foraging that explains why we assume optimality?

Answer 10

Costs: Search time to find food, foraging time (time it takes to gather food)
Benefits: more food = increased growth and survival of young, foraging locally = reduced energy expenditure

Question 11

what are the main question asked in the example of parental starlings foraging that explains why we assume optimality?

Answer 11

How many bugs should females collect in order to optimize energy gain for energy expended?

Question 12

what is the theorem used in the example of parental starlings foraging that explains why we assume optimality and what was the optimal # of food items?

Answer 12

Model it based on the marginal value theorem: simple graphical model in which we estimate both travel time and searching time and we will predict based on the cost, what the optimal # of food items per foraging bout. 7 food: optimal point where they’re offsetting the cost with the benefit

Question 13

What is another example of the optimality model used to predict load size for spice finches?

Answer 13

• In an aviary, he manipulated round trip time by making it harder to find food.
• Solid line = predicted # of seed pellets based on the marginal value theorem
• Values follow the predicted line demonstrating that the spice finches making calculations as to what is optimal

Question 13

In the spice finches example of optimality, what would occur to the optimal load if we increased the # of chicks in the nest?

Answer 13

Require more food bc more chicks. What happens to the previous prediction, would the line shift and how if it did?
-> The line will go up bc more chicks results in a higher relative benefit of each foraging trip bc survival of more chicks, so load on average increases

Question 13

What does ideal free distribution predict?

Answer 13

Predicts where individuals should compete for resources. So # of consumable components and how many competitors will be using the patch will depend on habitat quality

Question 13

Based on ideal free distribution, what occurs in a rich habitat with an increase in competitors?

Answer 13

per capita rate for acquisition will decrease with an increase in competitors: So individuals will do better by shifting from rich habitat with high # of competitors to poor habitat with low # of competitors

Question 13

What is another example of an optimality model used to look at fleeing costs using a model that looks at distance before prey flees?

Answer 13

Flight initiation distance; how far will prey let predator get before it responds:
1) Cost of fleeing is low, and cost of remaining is high = greater distance of the predator before fleeing
2) Cost of fleeing is high, and cost of remaining low = lower distance of predator before fleeing
-> If there is a cost associated with predation and it is responding to a predator, what is it missing out on? Other activities, so you can use same data on how long they will continue to respond after an attack bc time after attack is lost opportunity cost
- Cost of resuming activity
- Cost of immobility

Question 13

What is an example of ideal free distribution with sticklebacks?

Answer 13

• Puts X amount of food on 1 side and 2X on other side of a tank. After a few minutes, there’s a shift, x # of fish at x amount of food and 2x amount of fish at 2x amount of food.
• switches the amount of food to the other side and fish redistribute after a time lag

Question 13

What is another example that shows that predictions can be made with optimality assumptions?

Answer 13

They look at 3 and 9 spine sticklebacks, and killifish. Looked at % of fish remaining immobile after presenting a standardized threat to a shoal of fish:
1) Fish with high armoured (3 spine) = low cost of remaining immobile = less likely to flee
2) Fish with low armour (killifish) = high cost of remaining = more likely to flee
3) Cost of activity for high armour = much higher since it’s hard for them to swim meaning it costs more energy
4) Cost of activity for low armour = low cost to move since no bulky spines so easy to swim away

Question 13

Explain the Green Crab foraging optimality model

Answer 13

Looking at green crab foraging on mussels; can predict size of mussels they will forage on based on profitability:
- Profitability of large mussel drops bc it requires more energy to open it
- Profitability of small mussel drops bc not a lot of meat for the energy it requires to open the mussel

Question 14

How can you create a test to see that the green crabs foraging on mussels are making choices based on profitability?

Answer 14

Give them a choice in mussel sizes and then look at the overall distribution of food resource and what has been eaten; if the dead shells (eaten mussels) differs from size in shells of alive mussels, then you can determine if they are making choices based on profitability

Question 15

What are 4 problems with optimality modeling?

Answer 15

1) Models assume ‘optimal’ strategy; assume best possible trade-off
2) Assumes info is perfect and immediate
3) Assumes we have accounted for costs and/or benefits
4) Assumes we know what the individual is optimizing

Question 16

What’s the issue with models assuming ‘optimal’ strategy; assume best possible trade-off?

Answer 16

Assume animals could be energy maximizers, risk minimizers or making best of a bad situation. This is a big assumption since we are predicting optimality and animals will act the way they want (might not act optimally) -> HOWEVER, Optimality models allow us to generate testable predictions

Question 17

What do we call it if info is not perfect or immediate (modeling problem)?

Answer 17

UNCERTAINTY. We know that bc of the optimal predictions, anything that disrupts the perfect and immediate information leads to uncertainty

Question 18

What is the core assumption of optimality models in behavioral ecology?

Answer 18

That animals behave in ways that maximize fitness by making the best possible trade-offs between costs and benefits

Question 19

What is Phenotypic plasticity?

Answer 19

Differential expression of phenotype within populations based on the genotype environment interaction (G X E interactions). It means the same genotype can produce different phenotypes depending on environmental conditions.

Question 20

What is a G × E interaction?

Answer 20

It's the interaction between genetic makeup (G) and environment (E) that leads to different phenotypic outcomes

Question 21

What is differential gene expression?

Answer 21

Differential genetic expression across different environments.

Question 22

Why is maintaining genetic variation good?

Answer 22

Maintaining variation is good bc you maintain population viability

Question 23

What is differential fitness?

Answer 23

different genes giving different levels of fitness

Question 24

What is phenotypic plasticity constrained by?

Answer 24

constrained by reaction norm: the range of phenotypes a single genotype can produce across a range of environments. Plasticity is not unlimited.

Question 25

True or false: any phenotypic trait may be plastic?

Answer 25

TRUE: any phenotypic trait has the potential to be plastic

Question 26

How does phenotypic plasticity maintain variability within a population?

Answer 26

By allowing multiple phenotypes to be expressed from the same genotype depending on environment = variability

Question 27

What are 2 things that regulate phenotypic plasticity?

Answer 27

1) Developmental (regulatory genes): different environmental conditions during development activate regulatory genes, leading to different phenotypes from the same genotype which maintains variability 2) Behavioural (state dependent): behavioural trade-offs have consequences that are dependent on the environment; as a result of making a decision, there is some potential cost and some potential benefit (moment to moment), but these sum over time. The energy available due to moment to moment decisions determines the energy available for phenotypic plasticity bc these behaviours are energetically costly. (Feedback loop)

Question 28

What is multi-level plasticity regulated by?

Answer 28

regulated by both developmental genes and behaviour

Question 29

What is an example of phenotypic plasticity in fruit flies?

Answer 29

Fruit flies reared in warm or cold temps changes the size of the fruit fly, same genotype can give vastly different phenotypes based on their environment

Question 30

What is a reaction norm?

Answer 30

the range of phenotypes that a single genotype can produce across a range of environments (For one genotype, how much does the environment affect the phenotype?)

Question 31

What is an example of the reaction norm of phenotypic plasticity in frogs?

Answer 31

Steven Sterns looking at the relationship of age and size at metamorphosis in tadpoles: opposing constraining pressures of age since they need to grow for a certain amount of time (size) before metamorphosing and selection pressure constraining them to leave to mate and escape aquatic predators

Question 32

Why don’t the tadpoles with low resources metamorph early to leave the pond (Steven sterns)?

Answer 32

Constraining pressure: Selection pressure constraining them from leaving since they need to grow for a certain amount of time (age) and reach a certain size Constraining pressure: Selection pressure constraining them to leave the pond to mate and to escape aquatic predators *Opposing constraining selection pressures is what gives us our rx norm for metamorphosis

Question 33

What defines an organism's rx norm?

Answer 33

The range in possible behavioural expression is due to range in genotypic variance and the range of environmental costs (selection pressures). This interaction between genotype and environment defines an organism's reaction norm.

Question 34

What is a study that looks at the relationship between morphology and diet leading to changes in behaviour?

Answer 34

Looking at morphology and diet across 3 populations of pumpkinseed sunfish; Brian Nef: - High expression of DFA1 (discriminate function 1): typically have more pharyngeal teeth that are longer and thinner. Useful to filter out food - Low expression of DFA1: fewer pharyngeal teeth that are shorter and thicker and have greater sucking force which is good for eating mussels that are adhered to substrate - Go to pops and spawn them in a common garden and feed them either zooplankton or gastropods or a variation: The type of food triggers the morphological plasticity

Question 35

How does the type of food lead to a change in behaviour as seen in Brian Nef's experiment?

Answer 35

Food triggers the morphological plasticity (filtering or crushing gill arches) and this changes their behaviour bc the type of food will determine when (day or night) the fish will forage. So foraging efficiency is driving morphology and this is shaping their behaviour

Question 36

What is life history?

Answer 36

sum of all developmental stages from conception until death

Question 37

What are life history strategies?

Answer 37

- Adaptations which directly influence age-specific survival and fecundity: Any cost-benefit trade-off which may affect age-specific survival and fecundity 1) Reproductive rate: in part determined by growth rate as a juvenile 2) Age and maturity 3) current vs. future reproductive investment 4) mortality risk

Question 38

What is fecundity?

Answer 38

potential to reproduce

Question 39

What is the main assumption behind life history trade-offs?

Answer 39

Individuals have ‘fixed’ amounts of energy and that energy is dependent on env and dependent upon ‘phenotypic’ decisions in turn based on behavioural decisions. Energy can be allocated to somatic or gonadal growth: build either body or gametes, and that relative investment is dependent on the ontogenetic stage

Question 40

Individuals have ‘fixed’ amounts of energy and that energy is dependent on what 2 things?

Answer 40

1) Dependent upon environment 2) Dependent upon ‘phenotypic’ decisions in turn based on behavioural decisions

Question 41

Where can this fixed energy of individuals be allocated?

Answer 41

Energy can be allocated to somatic or gonadal growth: build either body or gametes, and that relative investment is dependent on the ontogenetic stage (dependent on stage in life)

Question 42

What are 3 energy allocation product trade-offs?

Answer 42

1) Age at maturity 2) Parity: reproduce once or more 3) Fecundity

Question 43

Species may exhibit multiple life history strategies depending on what?

Answer 43

Depending upon conditions and constraints: 1) Inter-population variability 2) Intra-population variability

Question 44

What are 5 factors that influence life history 'choice'?

Answer 44

1) resource availability 2) Inter and intraspecific competition 3) Mating competition 4) Predation pressure 5) Abiotic factors (i.e. temp)

Question 45

Define life history trait

Answer 45

Traits correlated with fitness, affecting contribution to future generations, such as survival, longevity, fecundity, offspring size, etc.

Question 46

What is an example of resource availability influencing life history 'choice'?

Answer 46

Great tit egg laying date: how many days after April 1st do females lay their eggs. Cold in spring, lay late in spring, or warm spring then laying early. Reproductive trait = time they lay their eggs. This is bc temp determines when prey are available for chicks so selection is operating on differential survival of the chicks since they have the same rate of survival early and late spring, but the chicks need food to survive so the mothers choose to lay when prey is available

Question 47

What is a 2nd example of resource availability influencing life history 'choice'?

Answer 47

Cannibalism in spadefoot tadpoles: What reproductive trait is influenced by tadpoles being cannibals?: Survival at reproductive age: since cannibal will be bigger at reproductive age it means they will be more likely to survive winter and can have more offspring so fitness is increased. So then why aren’t they all cannibals? -> Cannibalism is constrained by population density and food availability

Question 48

So in the examples of the great tit laying date and cannibalism in spadefoot tadpoles, what is the environmental trigger that causes a change in a life history trait?

Answer 48

1) Great tit: spring temperature bc food availability 2) Spadefoot tadpoles: size at reproduction due to food type

Question 49

What's wrong with finding nemo?

Answer 49

Finding Nemo ignored the clownfish’s adaptive life history strategy involving sex change based on social structure and body size (hermaphrodites): when nemo's mother died, nemo's dad would have become his mom

Question 50

What is an example of mating competition influencing life history 'choice'?

Answer 50

Sunfish mating strategy: brute force, sneak, or mimic female

Question 51

What is an example of predation pressure influencing life history 'choice'?

Answer 51

Juvenile Crussian carp collected from a variety of pops and put them into mesocosms with predators in some and none in others. Introduction of predators or odour = deeper body. Why don’t all Carp have deeper bodies if it decreases predation? Trade-off with reproductive life-history. Deeper body fish reach the age of reproduction years later than the fish with no change in body. Higher investment in somatic growth which means less energy for growth of gametes so reproduction is delayed; don’t undergo body change if you don’t have to

Question 52

What is the study that looks at Male mating strategies in Trinidadian guppy; effects of predation pressure - looking at trigger that causes a change in life-history traits?

Answer 52

Collected females from a variety of pops, measured, then euthanized, and then removed the babies. Paternity analysis showed that the proportion of females that had more than one male accounting for paternity is significantly lower when predation risk is low vs high

Question 53

What was the environmental stimulus in the study looking at Male mating strategies in Trinidadian guppy; effects of predation pressure - looking at trigger that causes a change in life-history traits?

Answer 53

Predation risk (NO), it is the driving ecological factor, but not the trigger. At low predation sites, females can chase males away. Under high predation risk, bc the males will be attracting predators, they can’t afford to be chasing the males away bc chasing increases her visibility and chance of predation. -> Therefore, male harassment is the trigger since females trying to avoid males that are trying to sneak would increase her risk of being eaten, so she allows them so and just stores the sperm so that she won’t be preyed upon.

Question 54

What is an example of a study that looks at an environmental trigger (pike vs rivulus) that causes a change in life-history traits?

Answer 54

Study by Dave Resnik and Ashley Walsh: 1) High predation site with cichlid pike as common predator: pike have a strong preference for large adult guppies, so we get a selection for increase of gonadal development (reproduction) at an early age at a smaller size to produce many small offspring 2) Low predation site with rivulus as common predator: Riv's feed on newly emerged guppies so there's a selection for a large investment in somatic development so they grow for longer and reproduce later with smaller # offspring but larger offspring

Question 55

What is the type of selection seen in David Resnik's and Ashley Walsh's study on the environmental trigger that acts as a selection pressure for either gonadal or somatic development in guppies?

Answer 55

Disruptibe sleection: individuals with extreme phenotypes are favoured, leading to increase in variation in the population

Question 56

What is the cue that causes a change in life history trait in guppies in David and Ashley's study?

Answer 56

Cue = what predator is present in the pop which triggers females to undergo change in life-history trait (somatic or gonadal development early in their life)

Question 57

Are the results seen in David Resnik and Ashley Walsh's study due to population differences or is it inducible?

Answer 57

They moved guppies from low predation site to high predation site in Trinidad. Returned after a generation and saw that the low predation site guppies now looked like the high predation site guppies and vice versa. This demonstrates how life-history traits can be plastic -> respond to changes in environment.

Question 58

When are flexible life history strategies selected for?

Answer 58

1) In variable ecological conditions: ex = breeding season to breeding season 2) Pops with high genetic polymorphisms 3) Variable reproductive value

Question 59

How can multiple life history strategies be maintained?

Answer 59

1) Gene flow and migration: will maintain the different life-history tactics 2) Frequency dependent selection 3) Variable environments: there's no one "best" life history strategy in changing envs

Question 60

What is an example of gene flow and migration maintaining multiple life history strategies in guppies?

Answer 60

Mating strategies: choosing males can be driven by predation pressures and seasonal rains that cause forced migrations. More gene flow, more migration = more flexible life-history strategies

Question 61

What is mixed ESS and it's implications in maintaining multiple life-history strategies?

Answer 61

Evolutionarily stable strategy: in the absence of external factors, frequencies of different phenotypes will be maintained, thus maintaining phenotypic variation within pops

Question 62

What is an example of frequency dependent selection maintaining multiple life-history strategies?

Answer 62

Atlantic salmon: If there’s one large male and 99 small males, then the pay off will be really high to the large male. What’s the pay off of being a sneaker? Very small bc there are so many sneakers. So if the pay-off of the 1 large male is high, then the # of large males goes up bc he passes his genes, so he has a lot to fight with so his fitness goes down and sneaker male fitness goes up. -> So the phenotypes of both are maintained (frequency dependent selection - balancing selection)

Question 63

Is there one ‘best’ life history strategy?

Answer 63

Not if the environment is variable

Question 64

What is the main idea behind animal personalities?

Answer 64

The idea of animal personalities goes back to the point that there is more than one tactic that an individual can use to maximize life-history traits

Question 65

What are 3 characteristics of consistent phenotypic variation between or within populations?

Answer 65

1) Behavioural tactics: ex: risk prone or risk averse and this is repeatable over time -> they will remain bold and shy will remain shy across different contexts 2) Repeatable over contexts: individuals are consistent 3) Phenotypically plastic: induced by environmental uncertainty

Question 66

Is there a cost to personality?

Answer 66

1) The example of the pace of life syndromes explains why 2) Reproductive success now vs in the future; just bc the personality is beneficial now, it may not be later

Question 67

What is a behavioural syndrome?

Answer 67

a personality is more than just a single behavioural metric, it’s the correlation b/w multiple behavioural metrics

Question 68

What study looking at sticklebacks made an argument for behavioural syndrome and what was their argument?

Answer 68

Bell & Sih, 2007: They argued that if we find consistent differences in a certain personality trait, then the trade-off of this certain trait should shape the trade-off for other traits. So if you take lots of risks then you should be aggressive and have higher foraging. And if you’re shy, then you show lower foraging, less aggression, etc. Show trade-offs across multiple behaviours due to personality trait.

Question 69

What were the results of Bell & Sih, 2007 study on behavioural syndrome in sticklebacks?

Answer 69

1) Upper panel: Little correlation between aggression and boldness when all fish are shown, including fish that were eaten 2) Lower panel: removed the dark spots (eaten fish). Now there's a strong correlation between boldness and aggression -> This demonstrates that selection via predation can reinforce behavioural syndromes by selectively removing individuals with "mismatched" traits (e.g., bold but not aggressive)

Question 70

What study showed a correlation between latency to respond to a predator and the amount of exploration done (behavioural syndrome)?

Answer 70

Jones and Godin 2010 Measured: Exploration of # of squares in a maze and latency to respond to predator model: 1) Slow response to predator: good explorers 2) Quick response to predator: bad explorers -> slower to respond suggests that the individual is bolder and bolder fish are better at exploration since they don't get scared and hide immediately upon seeing a predator. Suggests a behavioural syndrome linking boldness and exploration.

Question 71

What study demonstrates correlations between 3 behaviours (behavioural syndrome)?

Answer 71

Wilson & Godin, 2009: - Measured Activity levels (time spent moving), risk taking (response to predation cues), and exploration in sunfish 1) Activity is positively correlated between risk-taking: Higher risk-taking means higher activity 2) Exploration and risk taking are negatively correlated: risk takers less likely to explore to gain information and will respond without info 3) Strong negative correlation between exploration and activity

Question 72

In Wilson & Godin, 2009's study, how is there a negative correlation between exploration and activity? Why would I have low activity but high exploration?

Answer 72

Because of uncertainty. If I'm uncertain then I need to explore to get more info, but I just explore cautiously

Question 73

What maintains consistent phenotypic variation (i.e., behavioural types or personalities) within a population? Why?

Answer 73

The consequences of trade-offs maintain consistent phenotypic variation because the combinations of traits are adaptive in different ecological contexts, and the trade-offs prevent all individuals from optimizing all behaviours simultaneously

Question 74

What study demonstrates that neophobia is a response to uncertainty and uncertainty changes the cost structure so we get shyer phenotypes with uncertainty?

Answer 74

Study on foraging attempts and latency to escape in guppies in Trinidadian rivers: (dark line = higher concentration of alarm cue) 1) Alarm cue given at high concentrations = shy fish show high reduction in movement and foraging, but bold fish don’t act any different from the water control (no change in personality) 2) Repeated experiment but with high concentrations of a novel cue (unknown predator odour): shy fish show strong response, but so do bold fish -> demonstrates that Neophobia is a response to uncertainty and uncertainty changes the cost structure so we get shyer phenotypes with uncertainty

Question 75

What is the study tested juvenile guppies with food availability and what does it show?

Answer 75

Chapman et al. 2010: Same foraging patch at same time of day or same amount of food at different times of day - If food is predictable then they don’t have to go out to find the food = shyer - If food is unpredictable, they have to go out and find the food = bolder -> Behavioural tactics change depending on environmental conditions

Question 76

What study looked at time to emerge from a box, in fish from high vs low predation sites and what does this show?

Answer 76

C. Brown et al. 2005: 2) 1) High predation pops you have selection for bolder phenotypes, and in low predation pops, you have selection for shyer phenotypes. -> cost/benefits differ b/w sites so different phenotypes are selected for 2) For uncertain sites: bold and shy phenotypes both become extremely shy bc they don’t know what information they are receiving so they freak out -> Therefore, Consistent risk taking tactics can be induced by environmental triggers

Question 77

What study by Dingemanse et al. 2007 on wild song birds, demonstrates that complex behavioural syndromes can be driven by predation?

Answer 77

1) Right: only novel foods and novel environments showed correlation bc individuals entering novel habitats are entering to get food. 2) Left; take the same outdoor patches and add predators: correlation between food and habitats drops, but aggression and exploration, etc. increased in correlation. -> therefore, predation drives these complex behavioural syndromes (correlation between different behaviours)

Question 78

What is the study by Peter A. Biro et al. looking at behavioural trade-offs between growth and mortality explain evolution of submaximal growth rates?

Answer 78

Stocked high alpine ponds with juvenile rainbow trout: 1) In ponds where they don’t introduce predators: catch a lot of fish, we get a shift when they’re being caught (daytime or dusk), and we get a shift in where the fish are caught (shallow, deep, and pelagic - from least to most caught) 2) In ponds with predators: catching less fish per standardized catch, slight increase in activity in shallows and they avoid deeper areas and they avoid pelagic areas. 3) Hatchery reared fish are growing almost double the wild fish bc they're bolder so they're foraging more and getting more food so they have higher growth rates

Question 79

In the study by Peter A. Biro et al., if being bold like the hatchery trout is leading to larger growth size, then why aren't all the trout bold?

Answer 79

The trade-off is between growth and survival. When predators are introduced, the hatchery fish grow double, but they are less likely to survive compared to wild trout that grow more slowly and survive longer

Question 80

What is missing from Peter A. Biro et al.'s study on trout growth rates and mortality?

Answer 80

Measure of reproductive success; are those hatchery fish that are double the size of wild trout, getting some increase in reproductive success? Follow-up studies say yes.

Question 81

What is pace of life?

Answer 81

Describes how fast or slow an organism lives its life

Question 82

What is a slow pace-of-life species?

Answer 82

Individuals can live a long time and reproduce small #s of babies per bout

Question 83

What is a fast pace-of-life species?

Answer 83

Individuals can have short lifespan with lots of offspring per reproductive bout

Question 84

What does the study on the pace-of-life syndrome show?

Answer 84

- Consistent behavioural traits are linked to life-history strategies. For example, bold individuals might invest in rapid reproduction and short life (fast pace). Shy individuals might invest in survival and slower reproduction (slow pace). - Pace-of-life syndrome drives the investment in life-history traits -> ex: early investment in gonadal development or early investment in somatic investment -> These are mechanisms that maintain the variability across population

Question 85

What does the pace of life syndrome help explain?

Answer 85

Helps to explain why consistent behavioural traits (personalities) are maintained within pops. This variation is maintained by selection bc each strategy has trade-offs.