1
Q
What is the universal truth of life?
A
individuals will be at risk of predation for at least part of their life history!
2
Q
What are the costs and benefits of the behavioural decision of predator avoidance?
A
1) Costs: lost foraging opportunity, foraging under sub-optimal conditions, lost mating opportunity, greater energy expenditure, ‘expensive ’ anti - predator adaptations
2) Benefits: avoiding predation
3
Q
What are the 2 general predator avoidance strategy categories?
A
1) Pre-detection : before detecting predator
2) Post-detection: after detecting predator
4
Q
What leads to flexible predator avoidance strategies?
A
What is adaptive under certain conditions may not be adaptive under others (maladaptive)
5
Q
What are 5 ways acute predation risk has effect on behaviour and life-history?
A
1) Trait mediated predator avoidance
2) Nonconsumptive effects of predation (Preisser et al. 2005)
3) Schmidt (2005): predator avoidance patterns shaped by individual, population AND community level processes.
4) Temporal and spatial scales:
5) Landscape of fear (Zanette & Clinchy 2019): perceived threats
6
Q
Who looked at trait mediated predator avoidance which can be direct or indirect?
A
Peacor and Werner (2003), Mittlebach and Werner (2004)
7
Q
Based on Peacor and Werner (2003), Mittlebach and Werner (2004), what is direct and indirect trait mediated interactions?
A
1) Direct: top consumer (pike) eats a primary consumer (minnow) and that eats our producers (algae). Consumers have a direct impact on prey population and the abundance of prey population has a direct impact on producers.
2) Indirect: indirect effect of predation because the predator is removing the competitor of secondary consumers
8
Q
what 2 things influence predator avoidance patterns?
A
1) food availability
2) predation pressure
9
Q
What study looked at nonconsumptive effects of predation pressure?
A
Scared to Death by Preisser et al. 2005
10
Q
What are non-consumptive effects emphasized by Preisser et al. 2005: Scared to Death?
A
If there’s an increase in mortality due to consumptive effects of predation, then prey either die or leave. In the process of leaving from a highly profitable, but risky env, then going to low profitability and low risk env, they incur fitness costs due to reduced feeding, growth, or reproduction
11
Q
What are non-consumptive effects?
A
predation doesn’t have to kill to reduce prey population fitness; just changing behavior can have measurable costs
12
Q
What is the key point by Preisser et al. 2005 applied to aquatic environments?
A
In aquatic systems, prey behavioral responses to predation risk can explain up to 80% of the variation in recruitment, illustrating that non-consumptive effects often outweigh direct predation mortality in shaping population dynamics
13
Q
What is recruitment bias as mentioned in Preisser et al 2005?
A
The number of juveniles surviving to adulthood
14
Q
Based on Schmidt 2005, what 3 things are predator avoidance patterns shaped by?
A
Predator avoidance patterns shaped by individual, population AND community level processes
15
Q
What are 3 papers that look at temporal and spatial scales of predation pressure that affects behaviour and life-history?
A
1) Lima and Bednekoff (1999)
2) Magurran et al. (1990)
3) Clark’s model
16
Q
What is the model Landscape of fear by Zanette & Clinchy 2019?
A
Says that the perception of predation risk can shape behaviour and life-history and physiological responses amongst prey population
17
Q
What is perception of risk?
A
See a predator, smell a predator, or hear a predator where past predation risk will determine how they respond to future predation risks
18
Q
What is an example in starlings that demonstrates how fear can cause a shift in life-history tactic?
A
1) Reproductive pair of starlings have low perception of risk so they don’t allocate much time or energy towards perception and so they have many offspring.
2) If risk is increased and they don’t alter to the perception of risk, and produce 6 offspring, the predator will eat the offspring or the predator will eat them
3) Spending more time being vigilant comes at a cost (less foraging, more time showing fear behaviour), but that increase in time spent vigilant, means that the # offspring survive increases = Shift life-history tactic
19
Q
What experiment by Zanette, looks at multi-level risk interactions?
A
Take sounds of predators (bear calls), and play it in regions of the beach and look at the behavior of a dominant carnivore (racoons) and the consequences for common prey of that racoon
20
Q
What are the results in Zanette’s study looking at multi-level risk interactions?
A
The presence of predators has a negative impact on raccoons and it can have a positive impact on raccoon prey since the raccoons forage less, this leads to a negative impact on crab prey and crab competitors since there will be more crabs that survive
21
Q
What is the framework for understanding the ecological context of the landscape of fear?
A
1) These indirect cues of predators provides info and interacts with the landscape
2) Indirect cues increase spatial variation in risk
3) Spatial variation and antipredator behavior: driven by perception of fear (non-consumptive effects) which is spatially and temporally variable
22
Q
What was the argument presented in Lima and Dill (1990)?
A
Argued that an individual has an accumulated probability of mortality over its life, as demonstrated below
23
Q
What is the equation of mortality?
A
P (death) = 1 - e (-αdT)
24
Q
What is α, d, and T in Lima and Dill (1990)’s equation of mortality?
A
α = rate of encounter of predators
d = probability of death given an encounter
T = time spent vulnerable to encounter
25
What is P in the mortality equation in Lima and Dill (1990)'s paper?
The more time an individual spends doing something that puts it at risk of predation, the more likely it is to fall victim to predation (dead). Probability of death
26
What kind of model is the encounter situation?
optimality model
27
What is the point of the encounter model?
We cannot look at a single situation in isolation, we need to look at the accumulated probability of the behavioural decisions before capture and consumption or escape occurs
28
What are 3 things that the rate of encounter (α) is dependent upon in Lima and Dill (1990)'s paper
1) Local densities of predators/prey
2) Speed of movement through habitat by predator/prey through a microhabitat. On patch or between patch.
3) Habitat type: specific abiotic components and complexity increase or decrease rate of encounter
29
What are the 3 factors that the rate of encounter is dependent on, based on?
These are based on the assumption that prey can assess the probability of detection: Valid assumption since many prey types can detect predation risk and modify behaviour accordingly
30
What is the probability of mortality (d) dependent on in Lima and Dill (1990)'s paper?
Probability of escaping if prey detects first + probability of escaping if predator detects first (probability of escaping following capture)
31
What is the most flexible component of the probability of mortality equation and why in Lima and Dill (1990)'s paper?
T: Most flexible component of anti-predator strategy since they can adjust behaviour based on alpha or d.
32
What is the time spent vulnerable to predation (T) comprised of in Lima and Dill (1990)'s paper?
Comprised of current and future predation threats
33
what are the current and future predation threats involved in the time spent vulnerable to predation (T) in Lima and Dill (1990)'s paper?
1) Current = trade-offs
I.e. foraging under the risk of predation
2) Future = threat sensitive trade-offs
i.e. What is currently risky may not be as individual grows
34
What are 4 predator avoidance strategies involving behaviour?
1) Habitat selection as predator avoidance
2) Crypsis
3) Behavioural predator avoidance
4) Predator recognition
35
What are 3 forms of the predator avoidance strategy of habitat selection as predator avoidance?
1) Habitat exclusion
2) Selection for mating sites
3) Territoriality as a predator avoidance
36
What is habitat exclusion as a strategy for habitat selection as predator avoidance strategy?
Presence of predators exclude prey from using those localized habitats.
37
What is an example of habitat exclusion as a Habitat selection predator avoidance strategy?
Sunfish choose habitat based on predator location: Mating adults don’t choose based on the presence of their predators, they choose based on the risk of the offspring. So if you have a high density of predators that prey on juveniles, adults will avoid those habitats
38
What is an example of selection for mating sites as a Habitat selection predator avoidance strategy?
Julia Neilson et al.: Kokanae salmon spawn in gravel nests on ground, not in sandy areas that could suffocate eggs. When Shovel-head sculpin's are present (eat eggs), females will nest in slower moving, sandy-silty margins of the stream
39
What is the trade-off seen in Julia Neilson et al's paper on Kokanae salmon hatching in streams or lakes and what is this response called?
Bet-hedging response: The trade-off is between hatch rate and offspring survival since they have to choose between spawning where the sculpins can eat the eggs, or spawn where some eggs can suffocate, but offspring more likely to survive
40
In Julia Neilson et al's paper on Kokanae salmon hatching in streams or lakes, how do the salmon know if there are sculpins or not?
can smell if there are sculpins (cues)
41
What experiment did Julia Neilson et al's paper perform to know how the salmon detect sculpins?
Introduced sculpin odour to a stream with no sculpins: nesting adults decreased. So they used these chemosensory cues to detect and avoid these predators.
42
What is the difference between CE and NCE?
1) CE: consumptive effects: big animal eats little animal
2) NCE: Nonconsumptive effects: behavioural trade-offs that prey animals have to engage in to avoid the consumptive effects
43
What is an example of a paper that looks at territoriality as a Habitat selection predator avoidance strategy?
Judy Stamps (1996)
44
What did Judy Stamps (1996)'s paper show?
Her worked showed that knowledge of territory can lead to predator avoidance in Kangaroo Rats
45
What was the 1st experiment in Judy Stamps (1996)'s paper?
- Built 10 by 10 mesocosms that were structurally different and that excluded predators from getting in. Looked at growth, reproduction investment, and pop increase in the mesocosms.
- Then took model predators and flew them over the enclosures at regular intervals. Had trained live predators as well and looked for survival.
46
What were the results of the 1st experiment in Judy Stamps (1996)'s paper?
Complexity and simplicity of their environment didn’t impact their growth or survival
47
What was the 2nd experiment in Judy Stamps (1996)'s paper?
Switch the rats from one mesocosm to another mesocosm such that some Kangaroo rats were familiar with territory and some weren’t familiar with the territory.
48
What were the results of the 2nd experiment in Judy Stamps (1996)'s paper?
Mortality shot up in the rats that weren’t familiar with the territory. Familiarity allows them to avoid the nonconsumptive effects of predation. Reduces costs associated with the non-consumptive effects
49
What are the 2 forms of crypsis as a predator avoidance strategy?
1) Eucrypsis = camouflaged looking like background -> selected long-term benefit
2) Mimicry = resembling something dangerous or indedible
50
What are the 2 types of mimicry as a form of crypsis which acts as a predator avoidance strategy?
1) Mullerian mimicry = all members of population look alike, aposomatic colouration
2) Batesian mimicry = look like something dangerous
51
If you're a batesian mimic, what is the pay-off dependent on and why?
The pay-off is frequency dependent. If you’re in high population of real ones, more likely to live, if you’re in a high population of mimics, less likely.
52
What experiment looks at cryptic moths as a form of predator avoidance strategy?
English song bird trained, when it sees a bug, it pecks a square and it gets a seed pellet. Looked at success rate
53
What was the first experiment in the cryptic moth and song bird study?
1) Cryptic butterfly against conspicuous background: seen easily
2) Cryptic butterfly on cryptic background: bird doesn't see
54
True or false: Being cryptic on a cryptic background conveys benefits over a long period of time?
False: Birds with experience will learn overtime where the cryptics are so being a cryptic on a cryptic background conveys benefits only for a short period of time
55
What was the 2nd experiment and results in the cryptic moth and song bird study?
1) Single type of cryptic moth 1: get good at foraging
2) Single type of cryptic moth 2: get good at foraging
3) Mix: never get good at foraging - success only around 70% at best
56
What do the results of the 2nd experiment in the cryptic moth and song bird study show?
It's better to be a cryptic in a mixed species group since their survival is based on the abundance of other species (pay-off is frequency dependent)
57
What is behavioural predator avoidance as a predator avoidance strategy?
Behavioural crypsis: Flexible behaviour patterns, allowing individuals to respond to current conditions
58
What are 3 examples of Behavioural crypsis as a behavioural predator avoidance strategy?
1) Dace: In clear water they forage in the middle of the day on detritus, but in turbid water, they increase foraging rates by moving up into turbid water bc their risk of predation is decreased
2) Copepods migrate diurnally (during the day) due to foraging patterns of Dace
3) Bass alter response to chemical cues depending upon microhabitat
59
What is an example of an experiment on behavioural crypsis as a predator avoidance strategy in sunfish?
- Looked at juvenile pumpkinseed sunfish and how their response to chemosensory cues differs over different complexity envs
- Top left is Bass alarm cue and top right is another predator cue, bottom left is conspecifics alarm cue and bottom right is water control
60
What are the results of the experiment on behavioural crypsis as a predator avoidance strategy in sunfish?
1) Open bars; Small sunfish: freak out with all cues in all complexity envs
2) Hatched bars; intermediate sunfish: avoid cues in all complexity envs
3) Black bars; large sunfish: in low and intermediate complexity, they’re attracted to the areas for specific cues, but in high complexity, they don’t respond
61
Why do large fish approach and small and intermediate size fish avoid in low and intermediate complexity environments?
Heterospecific cues are good indicators of risk but may also be indicators of foraging opportunities. When you have high complexity, the fish can’t see anything so they don’t take
62
What is predator recognition as a predator avoidance strategy?
If individual can recognize specific cues of a predator, can avoid high risk areas before encounter
63
What are 4 examples of predator recognition as a predator avoidance strategy?
1) Minnows avoid areas labelled with pike faeces
2) Minnows learn to avoid risky habitats
3) Kangaroo rats avoid areas labelled with coyote urine
4) Rotifers can detect predator cues from downstream
64
Develop on the predator recognition example of kangaroo rats as a predator avoidance strategy
- Found population of coyotes that eat only cantaloupe and she was able to collect the urine from carnivorous coyotes.
- Kangaroo rats only avoid the areas with urine from coyotes eating mammalian prey
65
What is the Predator Recognition predator avoidance strategy, Grant Brown et al, 2 Experiments?
1) Experiment 1: Feed the pike minnows so now their feces smells like minnows. Soak sponges in the feces and introduce in tank of minnows
2) Experiment 2: Take pike and feed tropical fish that the minnow hasn’t interacted with and isn’t related to. Collect feces and soak it in a sponge.
66
What are the 2 results of the Predator Recognition predator avoidance strategy, Grant Brown et al, 2 Experiments?
1) Result: Minnows avoid that area
2) Result: similar to water control where they show no response demonstrating that minnows are responding to what the predator is eating
67
What impact does prey avoiding areas with predator feces have on a predator, especially sit and wait predators like pike?
Rates of foraging decreases
68
What is the 3rd experiment of the Predator Recognition predator avoidance strategy, Grant Brown et al study?
Experiment 3: put a single juvenile pike in a tank, and everyday for 7 days, feed it worms, mice, or minnows injected with UV fluorescent dye. Day 8 and day 9 record every hour where the pike is spending all its time.
69
What are the results of the 3rd experiment of the Predator Recognition predator avoidance strategy, Grant Brown et al study?
1) Fed worms: all feces found where they were foraging
2) Fed on mice: all feces found where they were foraging
3) Fed minnows: 90% of feces was on the opposite end of the tank from where they were foraging
70
What do the results of the 3rd experiment in Grant Brown et al. study demonstrate?
Pike localize defecation away from the foraging area to prevent scaring away the minnow prey. Possible example of coevolutionary pressures
71
Would you see these same results in bass; would bass localize their feces like pike?
No because they are pursuit predators, so they aren’t worried about localizing their defecation.
72
What do animals do to reduce attacking probability if behavioural responses aren't enough?
If the behavioural responses aren't enough = Morphological mechanisms
73
What are examples of morphological mechanisms that reduce attack probability?
Predator deterrents that come at a huge cost in foraging and courtship efficiency:
1) ex: Spines in sticklebacks
2) ex: Scale plates in amphibians
3) ex: Body depth in Crucian carp
74
How can predator deterrents that reduce attack probability, but come at a cost, get triggered?
Such deterrents can be predator induced:
1) Induced morphological changes
2) Example of alternative life history strategy
75
Why don’t all show similar anti-predator adaptations that reduce attack probability?
Increased costs associated with trait so you only show these traits if you absolutely have to
76
What is an example of fixed morphological adaptations that act as a predator deterrent such that attack probability is reduced?
- Blue-tailed skink can regenerate its tail so it doesn’t hide which would lead to foraging cost. It sticks a head in the burrow and leaves its tail out such that the predator will chase the tail.
- Strong selection for blue-tail skink bc the likelihood of escape increase as their predator detection increases
77
What type of evolution is blue-tailed skink an example of?
Divergent evolution: If fitness is sufficient they can drive divergent evolution
78
Who came up with the many eyes hypothesis?
Steve Lima
79
What is the many eyes hypothesis by steve lima?
As group size increases, time spent watching for predator decreases
80
What does the oddity effect suggest?
Suggests that because odd morphs stand out in a group, the odd morph has a higher likelihood of predation risk. This suggests that individuals want to hangout with other individuals of the same morph.
81
Should a dace want to hangout with another dace, or with another species?
Dace are little and can grow quite large: therefore, the high variability in size make it so that dace do not forage with other dace
82
What study look at prey fish tend to assort according to size rather than species?
Krause and Godin, 1996
83
Krause and Godin, 1996: what does this study show?
In the mixed species shoal, individuals were more likely to be associated with conspecifics and heterospecifics of the same size class than being with conspecifics that could be smaller or bigger.
84
What is social grouping based on in Krause and Godin, 1996?
Social grouping is based on predation pressure
85
What study demonstrated that ‘odd’ individual can gain additional benefits if group members are preferred food items?
Mathis & Chivers, 2003
86
What does the Mathis & Chivers, 2003 show?
Took minnows or sticklebacks or a blend and exposed to predators and being that rare stickleback reduced its probability of predation of the rare stickleback morph.
87
In Mathis & Chivers, 2003's paper, why do the rare stickleback morphs reduce the probability of predation?
Stickleback has ecological defences and wants to show it
88
How does social order alter interactions with predators?
If you put different species together, they form a dominance hierarchy: dominant individuals monopolize resources and uses subordinates as a cue
89
What study looks at the effects of social order with predation risk?
Gotceitas and Godin (1992)
90
What are the 2 experiments in Gotceitas and Godin (1992)'s paper?
Experiment 1: Using artificial streams they put atlantic salmon and let them swim there for days and food was introduced slowly at the end of the stream.
Experiment 2: flew a model predator over stream
91
What are the 2 results to the 2 experiments in Gotceitas and Godin (1992)'s paper?
Results 1: Dominant individual sets up and defends stream near end where food is introduced. Subordinate: still defending territory, but in a less optimal area. Drifters: individuals that can’t compete
Results 2: Dominant and subordinate race to opposite end and hide bc predator just flew over. Drifter increases foraging and moves up and occupies optimal territory because the dominant individual is no longer present
92
An hour after flying a model predator over the stream in Gotceitas and Godin (1992)'s paper, what happens?
Dominance hierarchy reestablishes itself
93
What does Gotceitas and Godin (1992)'s paper argue?
Using social status of other individuals as cues. Dominant individuals take shelter, and the dominant individuals will watch drifters, and if they are not attacked, they will resume foraging
94
What paper's experiment looks at whether it's social status or food availability that drives the effects seen in Gotceitas and Godin (1992)'s paper?
Experiment: Put 2 juvenile rainbow trout into a tank, 5% difference between their weights. Either get low food or high food then test to response of predator cue
95
What paper's results looks at whether it's social status or food availability that drives the effects seen in Gotceitas and Godin (1992)'s paper?
1) Low food availability: giving risk cue or control, dominant individuals do not respond. Subordinates do respond.
2) High food availability: Dominant shows strong response and subordinate doesn’t respond.
96
Why would dominants (rainbow trout) not respond when given a risk cue when there's low food availability?
Because this is the death vs dilemma: They ignored the risk and continued to forage
97
So why did the subordinate rainbow trout respond to the cue when in a habitat of low food availability?
Because if under risk of predation the subordinate doesn’t respond, it would not get much food since the cost to compete for the resource is increased.
98
What experiment and results demonstrates if it is it social order or is it food availability that drives the different responses of individuals in a social order?
1) Same experiment: put rainbow trout together for a week, feed them different diets then separate them into exactly same tanks
2) Both dominant and subordinate respond to a cue
99
So what is different between the 2 experiments on the rainbow trout that demonstrates if it's social order or food availability?
No social information in the 2nd experiment compared to the 1st experiment since the subordinate and dominant fish are in separate tanks, so this gives evidence that social information provides information on whether individuals should or shouldn’t respond to predators!!
100
What experiment looks at Shoaling with familiar vs unfamiliar conspecifics?
Chivers et al. 1995 Experiment
101
What is the Chivers et al. 1995 Experiment that looks at shoaling with familiar vs unfamiliar conspecifics?
Groups of fathead minnows in social groups (familiar or individuals that were mixed together from multiple different social groups (unfamiliar). Tested under the same conditions.
102
What are the results of Chivers et al. 1995 Experiment that looks at shoaling with familiar vs unfamiliar conspecifics?
1) Familiar: More dashing, Increase shoal cohesion, Faster shoaling, More inspection, and More inspectors per visit
2) Unfamiliar: More freezing, Less shoal cohesion, Slower shoaling, Less inspection, and Few inspectors per visit
103
Why more dashing in a familiar group than unfamiliar group? Why more freezing in unfamiliar groups than in familiar groups? Why does the pattern of response change (in Chivers et al. 1995 Experiment)?
Familiar individuals know how they will respond so they dash together, while unfamiliar individuals don’t know how they will respond so they freeze and don’t respond. Social familiarity shapes the Costs of responding.
104
What study looks at how the relevance of information extends to whether you know the individual or not?
Brown & Warburton 1999
105
What does the study by Brown & Warburton 1999 demonstrate?
1) Learning of ‘escape routes’ enhanced under social systems: previously familiar individuals learn escape routes
2) Social learning of predator avoidance
106
What does selection favour when it comes to threat sensitive trade-offs?
Selection should favour individuals that can reliably assess local predation risk and adjust response intensity accordingly: Maximize threat sensitive trade-offs and assumes a ‘graded’ or flexible response
107
What 2 things do individuals that adjust intensity of response demonstrate?
1) Maximize threat sensitive trade-offs
2) Assumes a ‘graded’ or flexible response
108
Why does selection favour individuals that assess local predation risk and adjust their intensity of response?
Individuals that always show maximal = lose out on other opportunities, and individuals that always show minimal = high death rate
109
What is a paper that looks at threat-sensitive responses that maximize threat sensitive trade-offs?
Helfman, 1989 and Helfman & Winkleman, 1997
110
What is the experiment in the paper by Helfman, 1989 and Helfman & Winkleman, 1997?
Plywood models of large and small trumpet fish, positioned horizontal or head-down. Manipulate level of perceived risk for bicolor damselfish and threespot damselfish
111
What are the results of the experiment in the paper by Helfman, 1989 and Helfman & Winkleman, 1997?
1) Bicolor Damselfish: Forage up in water column. Hypersensitive response: anything that looks like trumpet fish they show a response to, while size of the fish did not change their response. The cost of avoiding a predator is low so why not show maximal response.
2) Threespot damselfish: forage down in coral heads. As perceived predation risk increases, damselfish show a graded response. Costly to forage, so maybe there’s stronger selection to show a graded response
112
What paper showed the effects of energy investment in growth on sensitivity to risk?
Bishop and Brown, 1992; 3-spine sticklebacks sensitivity
113
What is the experiment in the paper by Bishop and Brown, 1992; 3-spine sticklebacks sensitivity?
Exposed newly hatched sticklebacks, and older sticklebacks to a large marine adult as a predator
114
What were the results of the experiment in the paper by Bishop and Brown, 1992; 3-spine sticklebacks sensitivity?
Newly hatched individuals show great reduction while larger and slightly older individuals showed almost no response
115
Why don't older sticklebacks show the same response as newly hatched individuals in the paper by Bishop and Brown, 1992?
Euthanized the fish and stained the fish such that it only stains cartilaginous tissue. What you see is that you can see the point at which the spines go from useless to useful. Therefore, newly individuals don’t have the morphological protection, while older individuals have the morphological protection that allows them to show minimal response.
116
What do the results of the paper by Bishop and Brown, 1992 demonstrate?
Investment of energy into growth changes sensitivity to risk
117
What study looks at perceived predation risk manipulated by alarm cue concentration?
Helfman, 1989 and Helfman & Winkleman, 1997
118
What is the experiment performed in the paper by Helfman, 1989 and Helfman & Winkleman, 1997?
Use chemosensory cues and manipulate their concentration as an indicator of perceived level of threat that is continuous.
119
What are the results of the experiment performed in the paper by Helfman, 1989 and Helfman & Winkleman, 1997?
1) In prey fish their perceived predation risk is concentration dependence, high [C] = high risk, and low [C] = low risk
2) Sunfish, trout or cichlids, they show very different responses: show all or nothing response
120
Based on the paper by Helfman, 1989 and Helfman & Winkleman, 1997, what factor would influence an individual's perception of risk?
Background predation risk, experience, learning, etc influences how individuals will respond. So maybe current conditions and past experiences are what shapes these responses to predation risk.
121
What paper demonstrates dynamic threat-sensitivity?
Brown et al. 2006 Can J Zool AND Brown et al. 2006 Behav Ecol Sociobio: teachers paper
122
What is the experiment performed in the paper by Brown et al. 2006 Can J Zool AND Brown et al. 2006 Behav Ecol Sociobio: teachers paper?
Manipulated the perceived predation risk by altering the alarm cue concentration and then observed the response intensity
123
What are the results of the experiment performed in the paper by Brown et al. 2006 Can J Zool AND Brown et al. 2006 Behav Ecol Sociobio?
If antipredator benefits outweigh benefits of foraging = shift from graded response to maximal all-or-nothing response.
124
What paper looks at the immediate benefits (group size) shapes threat-sensitive responses?
Brown et al. 2006 Can J Zool
125
What is the experiment of the paper by Brown et al. 2006 Can J Zool?
Change group size of juvenile cichlids under same conditions: plotted proportional change in foraging vs concentration of alarm cue
126
What are the results of the experiment of the paper by Brown et al. 2006 Can J Zool?
1) Large group: proportional decrease in foraging as there’s an increase in concentration of alarm cue = graded response
2) Normal group size: no response to lowest concentration, then respond at very high concentrations
3) Singletons: Hypersensitive response where they show a response to low concentrations and that response doesn’t change as concentration increases
127
What paper looks at threat-sensitive responses in Trinidadian guppies in high vs low predation sites?
Provenance and threat-sensitive predator avoidance patterns in wild-caught Trinidadian guppies by Brown at al. 2009
128
What is the experiment performed in the paper by Brown at al. 2009?
Collected female guppies from lower Aripo (high predation) and upper Aripo (low predation) then exposed them to increasing concentrations of alarm cue from gravid female guppies
129
What are the results of the experiment performed in the paper by Brown at al. 2009?
1) High predation: At 100% stimulus [C], the overall antipredator response intensity was highest for Lower Aripo guppies and that response intensity decreased in a graded (proportional) fashion with decreasing stimulus [C].
2) Low Predation: Despite an overall lower intensity antipredator response to the highest stimulus [C] by Upper Aripo guppies, decreasing stimulus [C] did not result in proportionally lower intensity responses.
130
What do results of the paper by Brown et al 2009 demonstrate
Results demonstrate that the overall intensity of antipredator behaviour and the form of threat-sensitive response patterns to conspecific chemical alarm cues in wild-caught Trinidadian guppies is dependent upon their provenance (place of origin)
131
What paper looks at fathead minnows learning to recognize predator odour when exposed to concentrations of artificial alarm pheromone below their behavioural-response threshold?
Brown et al. 2001
132
What is the experiment performed in the paper by Brown et al. 2001?
Take minnows and expose them to the odour of predator paired with synthetic risk cue or water (can be highly regulated) then test to predator odour alone.
133
What were the results of the experiment performed in the paper by Brown et al. 2001?
1) Conditioning trials: Minimum response threshold at 0.4 nM. Halve the concentration of alarm cue = no response. Don’t respond to predator odour alone.
2) Next day: show strong evidence of learning when exposed to 0.4 nm or higher of alarm cue by decreasing amount of area used when exposed to only the predator odour
134
Who came up with the predation risk allocation hypothesis?
Lima & Bednekoff (1999)
135
What does the Predation Risk Allocation Hypothesis by Lima & Bednekoff (1999) predict?
The risk allocation hypothesis predicts that prey responses to predation risk should depend on the temporal pattern of risk
136
What is the 1st prediction of the Predation Risk Allocation Hypothesis by Lima & Bednekoff (1999)?
As frequency of risk increases, response intensity, ‘effort of response’, allocated to each predation event should decrease
137
What is the 2nd prediction of the Predation Risk Allocation Hypothesis by Lima & Bednekoff (1999)?
In the absence of predation threat during safe periods, if frequency of risk increases, rate of foraging during ‘safe’ periods should increase, show pulses of foraging.
138
What paper looks at Juvenile convict cichlids allocate foraging and antipredator behaviour in response to temporal variation in predation risk?
Foam et al. 2004
139
What is the experiment performed in the paper by Foam et al. 2004?
Exposed cichlids to predation 3 times a day or once a day for same # of days, then exposed to predation.
140
What are the results of the experiment performed in the paper by Foam et al. 2004?
Cichlids previously exposed to alarm cue 3 times per day allocated significantly more foraging attempts to safe periods (pre-stimulus) compared to fish previously exposed once per day, regardless of the concentration of alarm cue used during the creation of background risk
141
In the paper Juvenile convict cichlids (Archocentrus nigrofasciatus) allocate foraging and antipredator behaviour in response to temporal variation in predation risk by Foam et al. 2004: Does frequency of risk influence response intensity?
For time spent moving, shoaling and area use we found a significant effect of frequency. Fish exposed to alarm cue three times per day spent more time moving, stayed farther apart, and used a greater area of the water column than those exposed once per day.
142
In the paper Juvenile convict cichlids (Archocentrus nigrofasciatus) allocate foraging and antipredator behaviour in response to temporal variation in predation risk by Foam et al. 2004: Does level of perceived risk influence response intensity?
Antipredator behaviours were significantly less intense for cichlids exposed to alarm cue 3 times per day than for those exposed once per day.
143
Who wrote the paper that looks at "Prey responses to pulses of risk and safety: testing the risk allocation hypothesis"?
Andrew Sih and Thomas M. McCarthy 2002
144
What was the experiment of the paper "Prey responses to pulses of risk and safety: testing the risk allocation hypothesis" by Andrew Sih and Thomas M. McCarthy?
Exposed snails to high risk, low risk, or always safe, then expose them to pulses of safety:
1) SSS = snails living in constant safety
2) SDS = snails living in constant safety except for brief pulse of danger
3) DDD = snails living in continuous danger
4) DSD = snails living in continuous danger except for brief pulse of safety
145
What were the results to the experiment of the paper "Prey responses to pulses of risk and safety: testing the risk allocation hypothesis" by Andrew Sih and Thomas M. McCarthy?
1) SSS/DDD = snails living in constant safety: Did not alter their behaviour over time
2) SDS = Reduced activity, but did not alter microhabitat use in response to the enhanced danger. In addition, the reduction in activity was not strong during risk pulse as they maintained a higher activity level than seen in other snails
3) DSD = proportion of snails active and proportion of snails exposed during the pulse increases the most compared to other groups
146
What study looks at risk allocation vs habituation?
Juvenile convict cichlids (Archocentrus nigrofasciatus) allocate foraging and antipredator behaviour in response to temporal variation in predation risk by Foam et al. 2004
147
What were the results for risk allocation of Juvenile convict cichlids (Archocentrus nigrofasciatus) allocate foraging and antipredator behaviour in response to temporal variation in predation risk by Foam et al. 2004?
During the testing phase, cichlids previously exposed to alarm cue 3 times per day allocated significantly more foraging attempts to safe periods (pre-stimulus) compared to fish previously exposed once per day, regardless of the concentration of alarm cue used during the creation of background risk
148
What were the results for habituation in Juvenile convict cichlids (Archocentrus nigrofasciatus) allocate foraging and antipredator behaviour in response to temporal variation in predation risk by Foam et al. 2004?
Fish conditioned with suprathreshold or subthreshold alarm cue 3 times per day, both significantly decreased their foraging attempts upon introduction of the cichlid test stimulus, but not to control stimulus of swordtail fish
149
What are 4 studies that demonstrate that populations exposed to long term (multi-generation) predation risk exhibit increased 'sensitivity' to predators?
1) Huntingford et al. 1984
2) Magurran et al. 1994
3) Doug Brown et al. 2009
4) Don Kramer et al. 1992
150
What does the study by Huntingford et al. 1984 demonstrate about long term (multi-generation) predation risk causing increased ‘sensitivity’ to predators?
Sticklebacks from high predation populations respond earlier and stronger to standardized predation threat: earlier responses are the trigger to the physiological response to the growth of spines
151
What does the study by Magurran et al. 1994 demonstrate about long term (multi-generation) predation risk causing increased ‘sensitivity’ to predators?
Guppies from high predation streams exhibit stronger predator avoidance to lower threats
152
What does the study by Doug Brown et al 2009 demonstrate about long term (multi-generation) predation risk causing increased ‘sensitivity’ to predators?
Minnows from Eagle Creek (high predation) show minimum BRT (behavioural response threshold) at least 1 order of magnitude lower than Marshy Creek (low predation) minnows
153
What does the study by Don Kramer et al. 1992 demonstrate about long term (multi-generation) predation risk causing increased ‘sensitivity’ to predators?
Chipmunks show consistent differences in vigilant foraging patterns based on predation risk
154
What is the Asset Protection Principle by Clark (1994)?
- Past experience will drive future risk-taking tactics: If you’ve accrued lots of fitness, you should be risk-averse, so you should shift to shy phenotype and vice versa.
- **Highlights context dependence of predator avoidance tactic.**
155
What paper tested the asset protection principle by clark (1994)?
Reinhardt (1999) Can J Fish Aquat Sci
156
What are the 3 experiments seen in the paper by Reinhardt (1999) that tests the Asset Protection Principle by Clark (1994)?
1) Experiment (top panel): Coho salmon in hatchery and looked at smaller and larger fish fed different diets, then exposed to predator model
2) Experiment: same setup but later in the fall
3) Experiment: looked at latency to resume foraging as a function of realized growth rate.
157
What are the 3 results of the 3 experiments seen in the paper by Reinhardt (1999) that tests the Asset Protection Principle by Clark (1994)?
1) Results: small fish responded, then resumed foraging right away while larger fish took longer to resume foraging.
2) Results: Large fish hibernate, they don’t resume foraging after seeing predator model late in fall
3) Results: small fish have lower growth rate and have shorter latency to resume foraging, while larger fish have higher growth rates and take much longer to resume foraging
158
What do the results of the paper by Reinhardt (1999) that tests the Asset Protection Principle by Clark (1994) demonstrate?
Results demonstrate that past-success drives future decisions
159
What paper looks at the Interactive effects of reproductive assets and ambient predation risk on the threat-sensitive decisions of Trinidadian guppies?
Katwaroo-Andersen et al 2016 with Grant Brown
160
How can you tell if guppies have mated or not?
Collect guppies and can tell if guppies have mated or not bc mated have black cloacal spot if they’ve mated previously
161
What is the experiment performed in the paper "Interactive effects of reproductive assets and ambient predation risk on the threat-sensitive decisions of Trinidadian guppies" by Katwaroo-Andersen et al 2016 with Grant Brown?
Collect female guppies from high predation and low predation then look at whether guppies have a black cloacal spot or not. Then exposed them to alarm cue.
162
What are the results of the experiment performed in the paper "Interactive effects of reproductive assets and ambient predation risk on the threat-sensitive decisions of Trinidadian guppies" by Katwaroo-Andersen et al 2016 with Grant Brown?
1) High predation: Not gravid = graded response (proportional to concentration of alarm cue). Gravid = Hypersensitive (nongraded) response where they respond at same level of intensity at any concentration of alarm cue.
2) Low predation: Gravid and non-gravid: respond the exact same way
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At high predation, why do gravid females demonstrate a hypersensitive response and what does this tell us?
They have accrued assets so they do not take risks. This tells us that past fitness drives future behavioural responses
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At low predation, why do gravid and non-gravid females respond the same way?
Behavioral decisions are similar since all fish have access to the same resources and mating opportunities.
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BIOL 354
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