Self-esteem inconsistency: mean level change
Young children have high self-esteem
Adolescents have relatively lower self-esteem
= Particularly true for women
Adults gain self-esteem gradually throughout development
Elderly adults begin to lose self-esteem
Adolescents
Period of development between childhood to adulthood
Begins at the onset of puberty
Ends at brain maturation, typically 25?
Two major physiological changes that occur during adolescence:
= Puberty
= Increase and refinement of connections in the prefrontal cortex
Executive functions are goal-setting, complex decision-making, attention-switching, inhibitions, etc, typically complex cognitive functions
At the same time, major psychological changes also occur
= Self-esteem
= Identity
= Morality
= Sexuality
Erik Erikson
One way in which adolescents develop socially is via identity formation
Erik Erikson: German-American developmental scientist (1902-1994)
Developed a theory of conflicts and resolutions
= Believed that every stage has one big problem and ends when it resolves, then moves on to the next
= Believed that identity formation was the chief task of adolescence
Conflict: Identity versus confusion
Resolution: Achievement of a solid identity
Erkison’s identity theory
Erikson believed that during identity formation, a number of challenges might emerge
= Identity confusion
Incomplete/Incoherent sense of self
Very common
= Identity foreclosure
Premature identity choice, something they choose way too early on
= Negative identity
Identity formed in opposition to other/social norms
They wanna do everything except the thing their parents want them to do, etc
Most individuals, however, emerge from this process with a stable identity
Erkison’s identity theory = Other challenges and achievements in adolescence
Emergence of abstract thinking
= Personality traits become more important
Emergence of social-socialization
= Adolescents choose who they want to hang out with
= Friends and social groups become of paramount importance
Personal fable
= Idea that what I’m going through is unique to only me and no one else
Imaginary audience
= Idea that they’re the main source of attention, that everyone is watching them, staring, etc
= Remnant from self-egocentrism from childhood
Adulthood
Development doesn’t end at age 18
Adults experience widespread changes to their physiology for the remainder of their lives, including
= Changes in sensory systems (vision, audition)
Changes in brain structure (not only losses)
These physical changes may cause psychological changes:
= Changes in memory storage and retrieval
= Slowing of cognitive processes
But because of their vast experience, adults employ better cognitive strategies
= These strategies help make-up for cognitive decline
Changes in memory
Memory declines in adulthood, but different types of memory decline at different rates
Episodic memory
= The ability to remember past events
= Older adults do tend to have a decline of episodic memory as chronological age continues
Semantic memory
= The ability to remember general information
= Semantic memory typically doesn’t necessarily decline, very moderate, not drastic
Changes in memory= Changes in selective attention
In addition to cognitive changes that occur in adulthood, older adults also pay attention to stimuli differently than children and younger adults do
= Older adults tend to remember positive stimuli better than negative stimuli
= Older adults’ amygdalae (emotional processing centers) are more activated by positive emotions than by negative ones
Older adulthood is one of the most positive, happiest, satisfying periods of life
