1
Q
Glial Cells
A
- provide support and nutrients to neurons
1. astrocytes
2. Microglia
3. Oligodendrocytes
4. Schwanns Cells
2
Q
Astrocytes (glial cells)
A
- suspends and separates neurons
- connects to blood capillaries & assists in transporting substances from the blood to the nerve cells
3
Q
microglia (glial cells)
A
- cleans damaged tissue from a lesion in the nervous system
- surrounds and destroys harmful organisms
4
Q
schwanns cells (glial cells)
A
-form myelin in peripheral nervous system
5
Q
Neuron (nerve cell)
A
-communication elements of the nervous system
6
Q
What are the Neuron structures?
A
- Soma (cell body)
- Dendrite
- Axon
- Axon hillock
- myelin sheath
- Nodes of Ranvier
- Telodendria
- Terminal Buttons
- Synaptic Vesicles
- Neurotransmitters
- Synapse
7
Q
Dendrite (neuron structure)
A
short projections that conduct impulses toward the cell body
8
Q
Axon (neuron structure)
A
longer projection that conduct impulses away from the cell body
9
Q
axon hillock (neuron structure)
A
junction between axon and soma
10
Q
myelin sheath (neuron structure)
A
- white fatty covering on axon
- protects and insulates the axon
- increases rate of neural conduction
11
Q
Nodes of Ranvier (neuron structure)
A
- area between myelinated segments where the axon is exposed
- permit saltatory conduction
- > process in which info in the axon passes from node to node, thereby greatly increasing conduction in speech
12
Q
Telodendria (neuron structure)
A
smaller branches extending from end of axon
13
Q
Terminal buttons (neuron structure)
A
- located at tip of telodendria
- transmit information to next neuron
- contain synaptic vesicle
14
Q
synaptic vesicles (neuron structure)
A
contain neurotransmitters
15
Q
neurotransmitters (neuron structure)
A
chemical substance that transmits nerve impulses across a synapse
16
Q
synapse (neuron structure)
A
small gap between connecting neurons
17
Q
multiple sclerosis
A
- chronic disease
- myelin in the central nervous system is destroyed
- myelin forms scar tissue (sclerosis)
- nerve impulses are distorted or interrupted
- symptoms vary based on located and severity of myelin damage
18
Q
Neurotransmission
A
communication between neurons by the movement of chemicals across a synapse
19
Q
neurotransmitters are released…
A
into synaptic cleft to facilitate transmission of info from the presynaptic neuron to postsynaptic neuron
20
Q
Neurotransmitters
A
- acetylcholine, serotonin, dopamine
- excitatory ->increase in activity
- inhibitory ->reduction in activity
21
Q
Functional differences between neurons
A
- interneurons
- sensory neurons
- motor neurons
22
Q
interneurons
A
communicating within the nervous system
23
Q
sensory neurons (afferent)
A
communication sent from the body toward the central nervous system
24
Q
motor neurons (efferent)
A
communication sent from the central nervous system to the body
25
Nerve pathways and tracts
- neurons function in groups
- wrapped together in bundles that form nerve pathways or tracts
- > efferent
- >afferent
- >mixed
26
upper motor neurons
- neurons located within the central nervous system
| - responsible for carrying impulses for voluntary motor activity from the cerebrum to the lower motor neurons
27
lower motor neurons
- neurons located in the peripheral nervous system
| - provides impulses/info directly to peripheral structures
28
Neuromuscular junction
the point of synapse between neuron and muscle
29
myasthenia gravis (disorder)
- chronic autoimmune neuromuscular disorder
- autoimmune responses destroys or blocks the receptor sites of the neuromuscular junction (neurotransmitters are unable to stimulate a response)
- fluctuating weakness of voluntary muscle groups
- hypernasal speech w/ reduced intelligibility
- difficulty chewing and swallowing
30
divisions of the nervous system
- anatomical division
| - functional division
31
anatomical division of the nervous system
- central nervous system (CNS)
| - peripheral nervous system (PNS)
32
Central nervous system (anatomical div)
- brain (cerebrum, subcortical structures, brainstem, & cerebellum)
- spinal cord
33
peripheral nervous system (anatomical div)
- cranial nerves
- spinal nerves
- sensory receptors
34
functional division of the nervous system
- autonomic nervous system
| - somatic system
35
autonomic nervous system (functional div)
-involuntary functions ( heart rate, digestion, breathing)
- sympathetic system
- >expends energy
- parasympathetic system
- >conserves energy
36
Somatic system (functional div)
-voluntary motor control
-pyramidal system (direct)
->initiation of voluntary motor acts
-extrapyramidal system (indirect)
->controls background tone & movement to support
primary motor acts
37
cerebrum - basic structures
- cerebrum cortex
1. Gyri
2. Sulci
3. Fissure
38
Gyri (cerebrum)
convolutions
39
sulci (cerebrum)
infoldings
40
fissure (cerebrum)
deep pronounced infoldings
41
major landmarks of the central and peripheral nervous system
- central fissure/ sulcus
- lateral fissure/ sulcus
- cerebral longitudinal fissure
42
central fissure/sulcus (landmark)
- rolandic fissure
| - separates the frontal lobe from parietal lobes
43
lateral fissure/sulcus (landmark)
- sylvian fissure
| - separates temporal lobe from frontal an parietal lobes
44
cerebral longitudinal fissure
-separates left hemisphere from right hemisphere
45
LEFT hemisphere (cerebral longitudinal fissure)
- linear, analytical, logical
| - math, science, language formulation
46
RIGHT hemisphere (cerebral longitudinal fissure)
- holistic, imaginative, creative
| - music, art, language expression
47
lobes
```
frontal
parietal
temporal
occipital
insular
```
48
frontal lobe
- planning, initiation, & inhibition of voluntary motions & thought processes
1. Broca's area
2. Precentral gyrus
3. premotor region
4. anterior portion of front lobe
49
Broca's Area (frontal lobe)
- speech motor planning
| - dominant (left) hemisphere
50
precentral gyrus (frontal lobe)
- motor strip
- initiation of voluntary motor movement to contralateral side of the body
- specific portions of the motor strop control specific muscles and structures
51
premotor region (frontal lobe)
motor planning
52
anterior portion of frontal lobe
- memory
- emotion
- thought processes (reasoning, problem-solving, judging)
53
parietal lobe
1. postcentral gyrus
2. inferior parietal lobule
3. angular gyrus
4. supramarginal gyrus
54
postcentral gyrus (parietal lobe)
receives sensory information
55
inferior parietal lobule (parietal lobe)
interprets visual, auditory and somatic sensory info
56
angular gyrus (parietal lobe)
- involved in mathematical calculation
- reading and writing
- impairment may cause dyslexia &/or dysgraphia
57
supramarginal gyrus (parietal lobe)
-phonological development (rhyming & reading development)
58
temporal lobe
1. Heschl's gyrus
| 2. Wernicke's area
59
Heschl's Gyrus (temporal lobe)
-receives auditory information from the ears
60
Wernicke's area (temporal lobe)
- processes receptive language (comprehension and formulation of spoken language)
- dominant (left) hemisphere
61
aphasia (disorder)
- acquired language disorder involving difficulty producing or comprehending language (spoken & written)
- generally caused by brain damage due to stroke, trauma, or tumor near Wernicke's area & Broca's area
- Mild to severe
62
Occipital lobe
- calcarine sulcus
| - > primary reception area for visual information
63
insular lobe
- insula
- deep to the lateral fissure
- it is believed to be involved with speech function, the limbic system, and visceral function
- gustation (taste)
64
Cortical Connections
1. Projection Fiber
2. Association Fibers
3. Commissural Fibers
65
projection fibers (cortical connections)
-tracts communication to an from the cerebral cortex
| brainstem and spinal cord
66
association fibers (cortical connections)
- communicating fibers between regions of the same hemisphere
- short association fibers
- long association fibers
67
Shorts association fibers (cortical connections)
-connect neurons of one gyrus to the next gyrus
68
long association fibers (cortical connections)
- connect the lobes of the brain in the same hemisphere
| - arcuate fasciculus
69
arcuate fasciculus (long association fibers)
-connect Wernikes area to Broca's area
70
Commissural Fibers (cortical connections)
- communicating fibers between the right and left hemisphere
- corpus callosum
71
Corpus Callosum (commissural fibers)
- agenesis of the corpus callosum:
| - ->birth defect in which the corpus callosum is not fully formed or is only partially formed
72
subcortical areas of the brain
1. Limbic system
2. Basal Nuclei
3. Thalamus
4. Hypothalamus
73
Limbic system - FUNCTION
| subcortical areas of the brain
involved in motivation, emotion, memory, reproduction, feeding behavior, and olfaction
74
limbic system- IMPORTANT STRUCTURES FOR COMMUNICATING
| subcortical areas of the brain
1. hippocampus
| 2. amygdala
75
Hippocampus
| important structure for communicating
- learning & memory
| - transfers memories from short term to long term memory
76
Amygdala
| important structure for communicating
- involved in ascribing emotion to events and behaviors
| - also aids in memory building
77
Basal Nuclei - STRUCTURES
| subcortical areas of the brain
1. Caudate nucleus
2. Globus pallidus
3. Putamen
4. Substantia Nigra
- >contains dopamine neurotransmitters
78
Basal Nuclei - FUNCTIONS
| subcortical areas of the brain
- regulates motor control for posture, balance & background muscle tone
- control of precise voluntary movements through inhibition (helps to refine & smooth movements)
79
Parkinson's Disease
- neuromuscular disease
| - degeneration of dopamine-containing neurons in the substantial nigra
80
Parkinson's Disease - SYMPTOMS
- slowness of voluntary movements
- trembling of hand at rest
- decreased facial expression and monotone speech
- shuffling gait
- swallowing problems (dysphagia)
81
Thalamus - FUNCTION
| subcortical areas of the brain
- relay station
- >all information traveling to the cerebral cortex (exception olfaction) passes through the thalamus
- >sorts & interprets info & decides which signal should be transmitted to the cerebrum
82
Hypothalamus- FUNCTION
| subcortical areas of the brain
- involved in sensory & motor of visceral function
| - regulates hormonal function, body temperature, hunger, sleep-wake cycles, blood pressure, and other function
83
cerebellum- FUNCTION
- regulate posture and coordination
- coordinates motor commands with sensory inputs to control movements
- >rate
- >range
- >force
84
Ataxia
- without coordination
- caused by infections, injuries, degenerative diseases that affect the cerebellum
- may cause coordination impairment in writing, walking speech and swallowing
85
Brainstem -FUNCTION
- responsible for basic body function to maintain life
- site of many reflexes involved in respiration, swallowing and digestion
- origin of cranial nerves
- pathway between cerebrum,cerebellum and spinal cord
86
brainstem -STRUCTURES
- midbrain
- pons
- medulla
87
midbrain
| brainstem structure
- contains cerebral peduncles (large bundle of nerve pathways) that provide communication to and from the cerebrum
- >corticospinal tract
- >corticonuclear tract
88
corticospinal tract
| midbrain
projects muscle control to extremities
89
corticonuclear tract
- corticobulbar
| - project muscle control to cranial nerves
90
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)
- degenerative disease of the nervous system
- causes muscle atrophy in the muscles of the extremities, trunk, mouth, and face
- corticospinal involvement symptoms will show up in fine motor movements of the extremities first
- corticonuclear (bulbar) involvement will show up in speech and swallowing first
91
Pons
| brainstem structure
- bridge to connect cerebellum and the rest of the nervous system
- contains olivary complex
- >aid in localization of sound and noise reduction
92
medulla
| brainstem structure
Pyramids
-location where cerebral motor commands cross (decussate) from one side of the body to the contralateral side of the body
93
unilateral motor impairment
- muscle paresis (weakness) or paralysis (loss of muscle control on one side of the body)
- neurological damage is on the opposite side of the brain
94
Spinal Cord - STRUCTURES
1. Central Canal
2. White Matter
3. Gray Matter
4. Spinal Nerve
95
```
Central canal
(spinal cord structures)
```
cerebral spinal fluid
96
```
white matter
(spinal cord structures)
```
- contain sensory (ascending) and motor (descending) pathways
- >sensory (afferent) pathways
- >motor (efferent) pathways
97
sensory (afferent) pathways
| white matter
-transmit information about pain, temperature, touch, and proprioception to the thalamus, cerebrum, and cerebellum
98
```
gray matter
(spinal cord structures)
```
- site of neuron synapse
- >Dorsal (posterior) Horn (root)- Afferent (sensory) information
- >Ventral (anterior) Horn (root)- Efferent (motor) information
99
```
Spinal nerve
(spinal cord structures)
```
- contain both sensory and motor branch
- sensory branch exits the spinal cord at the posterior root
- motor branch enters the spinal cord at the anterior root
- the two branches converge outside the spinal cord to form the spinal nerve
100
31 pairs of spinal nerves
```
8 Cervical
12 Thoracic
5 Lumbar
5 Sacral
1 Coccygeal
```
101
Spinal Reflex Arc
| spinal nerve
- simple stimulus response
- sensory nerve ending receives a stimulus
- sensory information travels to the spinal cord via the posterior horn
- synapse with a connecting neuron within the gray matter
- synapse with a motor neuron in the anterior horn
- information travels along the motor neuron to the neuromuscular junction
- reflexive movement
102
protective and circulatory systems
- Meningeal Linings (meninges)
- Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid
- Cerebrovascular System
103
Meningeal Linings
| protective and circulatory systems
1. Dura
2. Arachnoid Mater
3. Pia Mater
4. Subdural space
5. Subarachnoid space
104
Dura
| Meningeal Linings
- outer layer
| - tough membranous connective tissue
105
Arachnoid Mater
| Meningeal Linings
-middle layer
106
Pia Mater
| Meningeal Linings
- inner layer
| - thin covering of tissue that adheres closely to the grooves and convolutions of the brain
107
subdural space
| Meningeal Linings
located between the dura mater and the arachnoid
108
subarachnoid space
| Meningeal Linings
- located between the arachnoid and pia mater
| - filled with cerebrospinal fluid
109
Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid
| protective and circulatory systems
1. Cerebrospinal Fluid
2. Choroid Plexus
3. Lateral Ventricles
4. Interventricular foramen of Monroe
5. Third Ventricle
6. Cerebral Aqueduct
7. Fourth ventricle
110
Cerebrospinal Fluid
| Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid
- cushion for the brain and spinal cord (protection and suspension)
- circulates nutrients and chemicals filtered from the blood
- removes waste products from the brain
111
choroid plexus
| Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid
-produces cerebrospinal fluid in ventricles
112
lateral ventricles
| Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid
- 2
- one in each hemisphere
- beginning ventricles for circulation of CFS
113
interventricular foramen of Monroe
| Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid
passageway between lateral ventricle and third ventricle
114
third ventricle
| Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid
1
115
cerebral aqueduct
| Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid
passage way between third ventricle and fourth ventricle
116
fourth ventricle
| Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid
- 1
- sends cerebrospinal fluid to subarachnoid space to circulate around brain and spinal cord
- cerebrospinal fluid is then absorbed by the venous system
117
hydrocephalus
- excessive accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid
- increases the size of the ventricles
- results in pressure on the brain
- variety of impairment of brain function
118
Cerebrovascular system - FUNCTION
| protective and circulatory systems
- brain needs continuous supply of blood for the oxygen and glucose
- brain does not store the required oxygen and glucose
- interruptions of blood supply longer than a few minutes can cause permanent brain damage
119
Circle of Willis
| cerebrovascular system
- series of points of communication between arteries
- equalizes blood pressure within the brain
- equalizes distribution of blood flow
1. anterior cerebral artery
2. middle cerebral artery
3. posterior cerebral artery
4. cerebellar artery
5. basilar artery
120
Anterior cerebral artery
| circle of willis
- portions of the frontal and parietal lobes
- corpus callosum
- basal ganglia
121
middle cerebral artery
| circle of Willis
- temporal lobe
- motor strip
- Brocas area
- Wernicke's Area
- sensory reception regions
122
posterior cerebral artery
| circle of willis
- portions of the temporal and occipital lobe
- upper midbrain
- cerebellum
123
cerebellar artery
| circle of willis
cerebellum
124
basilar artery
| circle of willis
brainstem
125
stroke- DISRUPTION OF BLOOD SUPPLY TO BRAIN
-Occurs when an artery to the brain is either blocked or burst
126
stroke- MAY CAUSE TEMPORARY OR PERMANENT DISABILITIES
- paralysis or weakness on one side of the body
- difficulty talking or swallowing
- memory loss or thinking difficulties
- emotional impairments
127
Cranial Nerves
```
I- Olfactory
II- Optic
III- Oculomotor
IV- Trochlear
V- Trigeminal
VI- Abducens
VII- Facial
VIII- Vestibulocochlear
IX- Glossopharyngeal
X- Vagus
XI- Accessory
XII- Hypoglossal
```
128
Olfactory
| cranial nerve
I
- function: sense of smell
- Type: sensory
- Damage: anosmia- loss of sense of smell and taste
129
Optic
| cranial nerve
II
- Function: communicates visual information to the brain
- Type: Sensory
- Damage: various types of visual impairment depending on the location and severity of the damage along the nerve
130
Oculomotor
| cranial nerve
III
Function: innervates eye movement (visual convergence and pupil size/lens shape)
Type: Motor
Damage: -Inability to turn the eye in
-drooping of the eyelid
-abnormal dilation of the pupil
131
Trochlear
| cranial nerve
IV
Function: innervates eyes movement (visual tracking: downward and outward)
Type: Motor
Damage: inability to turn eye down and out
132
Trigeminal
| cranial nerve
V
-Function:
Motor: innervates muscles of mastication, tensor veli palatini, tensor tympani
Sensory: communicates sensation from face, mouth, teeth mucosal lining and tongue
-Type: Both
- Damage:
- >increased jaw jerk reflex
- >jaw may deviate toward the side of the lesion
- >jaw may hang open- will effect speech
- >hypernasality in speech due to weakness or paralysis of tensor veli palatini muscle
- >loss or altered sensation from various locations of the face
133
Abducens
| cranial nerve
VI
- Function: innervates eye movements (lateral eye movements)
- Type: Motor
- Damage: -eyes rotate in
- double vision
134
Facial
| cranial nerve
VII
-Function:
Motor: innervates muscles of facial expression and tear glands
Sensory: serves taste of anterior two-thirds of tongue
-Type: Both
- Damage:
- >upper and lower face paralysis on the side of the lesion
- >loss of tone, reduction in wrinkling
- > may drool due to the loss of lip control
- >alteration of taste
135
Bells Palsy
compression of the facial nerve
136
Vestibulocochlear
| cranial nerve
VIII
- Auditory nerve
- Function: Mediates auditory (hearing) information and vestibular (equilibrium) sensations
- Type: Sensory
- Damage: - Ipsilateral (same side) hearing loss
- Vertigo (feeling that you or your surrounding are moving)
137
Glossopharyngeal
| cranial nerve
IX
-Function:
Motor: innervation of stylopharyngeus and superior pharyngeal constrictor
Sensory: Taste to posterior one-third of tongue and portion of the soft palate
-Type: Both
- Damage: -loss of sensation for posterior tongue and pharynx
- reduced or absent gag reflex
138
Vagus
| cranial nerve
X
-Function:
Motor: Innervates muscles of the larynx used for phonation and protection of the airway, innervates all velopharyngeal muscles except the tensor veli palatini
Sensory: Delivers, pain touch a temperature sense from the eardrum, posterior auricle and external auditory meatus
- serves that autonomic nervous system (heart rate, blood pressure, digestion)
- Type: Both
- Damage:
- >dysphagia (difficulty swallowing)
- >loss of gag reflex
- >hyper nasality
- >nasal regurgitation
- >unilateral or bilateral flaccid vocal fold paralysis
- >risk for aspiration pneumonia
139
Accessory
| cranial nerve
XI
- Function: activates sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles
- Type: motor
- Damage:
- >unable to turn head away from the side of the lesion
- >restricted ability to elevate the arm
- >drooping shoulder
140
Hypoglossal
| cranial nerve
XII
- Function: innervates the muscles of the tongue
- Type: Motor
- Damage:
- >tongue will deviate toward the side of the lesion
- >fasciculation (abnormal involuntary twitching) of tongue
- >tongue muscle weakness
141
Traumatic brain injuries
- coup
| - contrecoup
142
coup
| Traumatic brain injury
injury at the site of impact
143
contrecoup
| Traumatic brain injury
- injury opposite the site of impact
| - linear and rotational movement of the brain within skull
COMD 3100
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