1
Q
Why do we have memory?
A
Routines and habits allow us to solve current and future problems
2
Q
What are the two types of long-term memories?
A
Explicit and implicit memories
3
Q
What are explicit memories?
A
Memories on facts and person events
4
Q
What are implicit memories?
A
Memories on procedures - doesn’t require conscious recollection
5
Q
Is memory part of one part of the brain?
A
No - different types of memory are supported by different neural systems
6
Q
Who was Patient HM and what was his case?
A
Hippocampus was removed to prevent seizures -> could not form long-term memories after
- Couldn’t recall or form explicit memories
- Could learn new procedures but did not remember it (implicit)
7
Q
What were the results from Patient HM?
A
- Hippocampus linked to long-term memory
- There are different types of memories and regions of the brain linked to it
8
Q
When are memories built?
A
At time of retrieval
9
Q
Are memories the same across people?
A
No, memories are flexible
10
Q
What is the multi-store model of memory?
A
Sensory input -> sensory memory (info not transferred is lost) -> short-term memory (is rehearsed here, until:) -> long-term memory
11
Q
What does the multi-store model represent memory as?
A
Different time scales
12
Q
What is sensory memory?
A
Only held for seconds, necessary for making quick decisions
13
Q
Are different senses held in different memories?
A
Yes
14
Q
What is iconic memory?
A
Millisecond visual memory
15
Q
What are the two types of iconic memory?
A
Positive afterimage and negative afterimage
16
Q
What is positive afterimage?
A
Visual memory that represents the perceived image in the same colors
e.g., sparklers
17
Q
What are negative afterimage?
A
Visual memory that is the color inverse of perceived image
18
Q
Between positive and negative afterimage - which one lasts longer?
A
Negative
19
Q
What is echoic memory
A
Sound-byte held for ~3 sec
20
Q
What is haptic memory>
A
Very brief memory of a touch
21
Q
What is sensory memory’s capacity and characteristics?
A
Short but large and decays very quickly
22
Q
What is short-term memory (STM)?
A
Sensory memory -> STM when we want to remember it
23
Q
What is the serial position effects and characteristic?
A
Order that we learn info impacts what we retain and what we don’t
People will remember first and last items in a list
24
Q
What is the primacy effects?
A
Rehearsal in STM makes LTM
25
What is the recency effects?
Able to remember things within 30 seconds -> after it disappears
26
What is the chunking strategy?
Grouping items together in a meaningful way
27
What does chunking increase with?
Knowledge
28
What is working memory?
Retention and manipulation of info not in our environment
29
What is working memory essential for?
Many cognitive functions
30
What are the four components of working memory?
Central executive, visuo-spatial sketchpad, phonological loop, episodic buffer
31
What is the central executive?
Controls what tasks will happen
32
What is the visuo-spatial sketchpad responsible for?
Visual info
33
What are the two parts of visuo-spatial sketchpad?
Visual cache and inner scribe
34
What is the visual cache responsible for?
Info about visual features
35
What is the inner scribe responsible for?
Info about spatial location, movement, and sequences
36
What is the phonological loop responsible for?
Auditory info
37
What are the two parts of the phonological loop?
Phonological store and articulatory control loop
38
What is the phonological store?
Passive store for verbal info (inner ear)
39
What is the articulatory control loop?
Active rehearsal of verbal info (inner voice)
- Needed for language - converts written material into sound
40
How are visuo-spatial sketchpad and the phonological loop related?
They are the same, just process different info
- People who have strengths in one or the other are more drawn to careers tied to visual/auditory skills
41
What is episodic buffer?
Integrates info from short- and long-term memory
42
What are the two types of long-term memory?
Implicit and explicit
43
What is implicit LTM?
Non-declarative, non-conscious memory - used for procedural and priming
44
What is explicit LTM?
Declarative, conscious memory - used for episodic and semantic
45
What are the three stages of memory?
Encoding, storage, retrieval
46
What is memory encoding?
Learning new info - forming a memory trace
47
What is memory storage?
Maintaining memory trace as a neural code
48
What is memory retrieval?
Constructing a memory from a cue for a specific purpose
49
What is the hippocampus' role in memory?
Indexes memories that are stored across the brain (think of a rolodex)
50
What is the biological basis of memory?
Synapses
51
What is the Ebbinghaus study and the result?
One man, 2000 cards of nonsense syllables learned under strict conditions, read them at consistently fast pace and with no inflection
Result: forgetting curve is exponential
52
What is the forgetting curve?
Memory loss is largest early on and slows down over time
"Use it or lose it"
53
What are the physical factors that can affect the forgetting curve?
Sleep - increases ability to recall
Stress - decreases ability to recall
54
What is the spacing effect?
Better at remembering info when it is done at different time periods
Repeated info is more valuable
55
What is active rehearsal?
Testing yourself to learn better
56
What is the levels of processing theory?
Strength of memory depends on processes engaged at encoding at certain levels:
Shallow = focus on sensory info
Deep = integrated higher-level knowledge with learned info
57
What are mnemonics?
Mental tools used to help encode info for long-term (organizational strategies)
58
What is the Method of Loci?
Making association of a familiar environment to an item -> brings forth the item
AKA memory palace - imagery helps memory
59
When is memory retrieval best? (in terms of environment)
When it is in the same context that you learned it in (overlap source of cortex)
60
What kinds of context can you learn in?
Internal state (state-dependent learning) and external environment
61
How does process context play a role? (transfer-appropriate processing)
Overlap between processes during encoding and retrieval determines memory strength
62
What is the decay theory?
Memories are lost over time due to disuse
63
What is the interference theory?
Interference is responsible for much of forgetting
64
What are the types of interferences?
Proactive and retroactive
65
What is proactive interference?
Prior info interferes with encoding a new memory
E.g., can't remember a new phone # due to old one
66
What is retroactive interference?
New info interferes with a prior encoded memory
E.g., after creating a new password, can't remember old one
67
What are similarity effects?
When things are similar and learned - it is more likely to interfere with memory
68
What is episodic memory?
Recollecting unique events within their specific time and place
- Personally related
Retrieving what, where, when of an event
69
What is semantic memory?
Culturally-shared knowledge and knowledge about the self (not attached to a time and place)
No retrieval of learning - just what we know
70
What is semantic dementia?
Affects temporal poles (semantic processing) can still perform episodic memory tasks (unlike other diseases)
- Cannot match animal photos BUT can recall what they ate earlier
71
What does damage to the hippocampus cause?
No episodic memory but have semantic memory
- Cannot copy images after a delay BUT have normal facts and general knowledge
72
Who was Patient K and what was their case?
Could not recall episodic things (personal details) but could recall facts/facts relating to him
73
What are the types of consciousness under LTM?
Anoetic, noetic, and autoneotic
74
What is anoetic consciousness?
Implicit memory, no awareness or personal engagement
75
What is noetic consciousness?
Semantic memory, awareness but no personal engagement
76
What is autonoetic consciousness?
Episodic memory, awareness and personal engagement (mental time travel)
77
What is the Reappearance Hypothesis?
An episodic memory is recalled the same way at each retrieval
78
What are involuntary memories?
Come to mind without retrieval attempt - typically emotional and repetitive
79
What are flashbulb memories?
Happen in the world that are defined by emotionally arousing, surprising/shocking, important to self or society BUT NOT personal
Public flashbulb events are significant to the public (9/11)
80
Flashbulb vs everyday memories, which ones are judged to be more accurate? Are they actually?
Flashbulb - not necessarily, change the same rate as everyday ones
WE CONSTRUCT OUR MEMORIES
81
Why are memories susceptible to distortion?
Because we construct them
82
What are schemas?
Higher-order constructs of how we think the world works/is organized
83
What is misattribution?
Familiar feeling that leads to incorrect association
- issues with source monitoring
84
What is misattributed arousal?
Misattributed emotion from one thing to another
(Think prince in shining armor)
85
What is misinformation?
When details are added during retrieval of a constructed memory
86
What was the result of the misinformation experiment?
Participants in the smashed group said a faster speed/more damage compared to those in the contact group
87
What are implanted memories?
Completely made-up memories simply from people suggesting them
88
What was the implanting memories experiment?
Mixing fake and real memories to a person -> had them recall them
By day 3 they said the fake memory was real
89
What causes false memories?
Memory consolidation: when constructing a memory it opens it up => susceptible to change
90
How can the process of false memories be utilized to benefit?
Rewire traumatic events
91
What are the two types of implicit memory?
Procedural and priming memory
92
What are procedural memories?
Automatic behavior/actions - often related to motor movements and organization of sequences
93
What does procedural memory involve?
Striatum in basal ganglia (habits and shaping sequences) and prefrontal cortex (retrieval and organization)
94
What is the process of forming implicit memories?
Explicit memory -> practice/exposure -> implicit memory (practice makes perfect)
95
What is the downside of procedural memories?
Habits can become addictive (e.g., repetitive thoughts and actions in OCD)
96
Where does habit formation happen in?
Striatum (in basal ganglia)
97
Where does breaking habit happen in?
Prefrontal cortex
98
If you remove the reward from the process of creating a habit, what happens?
The habit remains - does not break the habit
99
How does one break a habit (biologically)?
Inhibiting the prefrontal cortex to reduce association AND form new associations
100
What is priming?
Prior info facilitates info processing without awareness
101
What was the priming experiment?
Participants study words -> complete word fragments
Results: were more likely to fill fragments with words previously studied BUT didn't consciously remember learning them
102
What are conditioned emotional responses?
Automatic responses to something scary or dark - helps us remove ourselves from danger
103
What is involved with conditioned emotional responses?
Amygdala
104
What is amnesia?
Issues with memory
105
What is anterograde amnesia?
Inability to form new episodic memories
Issue with encoding
106
What is retrograde amnesia?
Inability to retrieve old memories before onset
107
What is confabulations?
Fabricated stories to cope with memory gaps (false memories)
- Deficits in monitoring processes
108
What is dissociative amnesia?
Rare psychiatric disorder - response to psychological/physical trauma
- Not caused by brain injury
- results in retrograde amnesia
109
What is a characteristic of dissociative amnesia?
People move to new place and assume new identity
110
What is Alzheimer's?
Most common form of dementia caused by build up of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles -> cell death
111
What is the first area to be affected by Alzheimer's?
Medial temporal lobe (MTL) regions
112
What is the first symptom of Alzheimer's?
Deficit in episodic memory
113
What is dementia?
Neurodegradation of the mind
114
When does episodic memory begin to decline?
The 20s
115
What are domain-general cognitive aging theories?
Older adults have deficits in general executive cognitive processes from frontal atrophy
116
What is associative deficit hypothesis?
Older adults have issues with creating links and retrieving
117
What is spared and impaired in aging?
Spared: familiarity = recognize a single item (DOES NOT require hippocampus)
Impaired: recollection = recognizing face and context (DOES require hippocampus)
118
What is adaptive cognitive aging?
Why some adults remember well while others don't
young adults = activate right prefrontal cortex
high memory performing old adults = activate BOTH right and left prefrontal cortex
119
What is the reminiscence bump?
Old adults tend to remember more events from teenage years
- Linked with music and adaptive function of memory (focus on experiences critical for self-identity)
120
What was the result of London taxi drivers memory study?
Taxi drivers have greater posterior hippocampus grey matter volume - linked to memorizing intricate map
121
What is a highly superior autobiographical memory?
Remember every single day from their lives in detailed
- Limited to only memories from their lives
- NOT photographic memory (don't remember photos, but rather details)
122
What is semantic memory?
Knowledge of the world - facts and concepts
- Will differ depending on our experiences
123
What is the hypothesis about semantic memory and expertise?
More expertise in a field = more density in the network relating to that field
124
What does spreading activation mean?
Activating one concept results in activity spreading to interconnected conncepts/features
PSYC 213
flashcards
Decks in class (14)
# Cards
-
History and Early Views40
-
The Mind and Brain & Studying Cognition28
-
Neuroimaging Tools13
-
Perception (Vision)54
-
Perception (Auditory)46
-
Attention69
-
Memory124
-
Concepts and Knowledge28
-
Language70
-
Multilingualism and Development16
-
Imagery37
-
Problem Solving65
-
Decision-Making And Reasoning101
-
Intelligence1
