memory : using it not losing it

Question 1

what kinds of information make up an episodic memory?

Answer 1

context (time, place, thoughts), associations between details and event details (who, what)

Question 2

how can recollection be triggered?

Answer 2

by reinstating part of a memory using a matching cue

Question 3

why does a matching cue help memory retrieval?

Answer 3

because it overlaps with the stored memory trace

Question 4

which study used video clips to demonstrate contextual cueing?

Answer 4

Smith & Manzano (2010)

Question 5

what is the difference between recall and recognition tests?

Answer 5

recall requires self-generated retrieval; recognition requires identifying previously seen items

Question 6

what classic study demonstrated context-dependent memory underwater vs on land?

Answer 6

Godden & Baddeley (1975)

Question 7

what did Godden & Baddeley find about environmental context?

Answer 7

recall was better when encoding and retrieval contexts matched

Question 8

are replications of context-dependent memory always successful?

Answer 8

no, results have been mixed

Question 9

what is encoding specificity principle?

Answer 9

memory is best when retrieval cues match encoding processes

Question 10

what is transfer-appropriate processing?

Answer 10

memory depends on overlap between encoding and retrieval operations

Question 11

Which studies are central to encoding specificity?

Answer 11

Tulving & Thomson (1973); Morris et al. (1977).

Question 12

How did semantic vs rhyme encoding affect recognition tests?

Answer 12

Semantic encoding led to better recognition.

Question 13

How did rhyme cues affect memory performance?

Answer 13

Words encoded with rhyme were retrieved better with rhyming cues.

Question 14

What is content-addressable memory?

Answer 14

A system where memories are retrieved by their content.

Question 15

How does content-addressable memory differ from address-addressable memory?

Answer 15

Content-based retrieval vs fixed-location retrieval.

Question 16

What do global matching models propose and who proposed them?

Answer 16

Retrieval reflects the similarity between a cue and all stored traces and Clark & Gronlund (1996)..

Question 17

What is the complementary learning systems model?

Answer 17

Memory representations are stored in cortex and completed by the hippocampus

Question 18

Who proposed the complementary learning systems model?

Answer 18

McClelland et al. (1995).

Question 19

What is pattern completion?

Answer 19

The hippocampus reconstructs a full memory from a partial cue

Question 20

How does the brain allow us to “relive the past”?

Answer 20

Through reinstatement of neural activity patterns from encoding.

Question 21

What happens when we experience an event at encoding?

Answer 21

A subset of active neural representations is stored

Question 22

How does a memory cue trigger recollection in the brain?

Answer 22

By reinstating the rest of the stored neural pattern.

Question 23

Which study demonstrated neural reinstatement using fMRI?

Answer 23

Polyn et al. (2005)

Question 24

What types of stimuli were used in Polyn et al. (2005)?

Answer 24

Faces, locations, and objects

Question 25

What technique detected reinstated memory patterns?

Answer 25

Machine-learning classifiers applied to fMRI data

Question 26

What is episodic reinstatement and why is it important?

Answer 26

Reactivation of neural patterns representing past events and it enables conscious recollection and “mental time travel”

Question 27

What is self-cueing?

Answer 27

Using internally generated cues to trigger memory retrieval

Question 28

How does asking “Where did you go?” help recall?

Answer 28

It reinstates context, which cues related actions and events.

Question 29

When did reinstatement begin relative to recall in Polyn et al. (2005) and what does this timing suggest?

Answer 29

About 5 seconds before recall and suggests mental reinstatement may cause recall

Question 30

What limitation applies to fMRI evidence in Polyn et al (2005)?

Answer 30

poor temporal resolution

Question 31

What makes a good memory cue?

Answer 31

It overlaps with stored memory and is diagnostic.

Question 32

Why isn’t deep encoding always sufficient?

Answer 32

Retrieval cues must also match encoding.

Question 33

What does cue-dependent forgetting mean?

Answer 33

Forgetting reflects retrieval failure, not memory loss.

Question 34

What applied technique uses cue reinstatement?

Answer 34

The cognitive interview.

Question 35

what are examples of external and internal memory cues?

Answer 35

External : Smells, photos, locations. Internal : Mental context reinstatement.

Question 36

How are mnemonics related to cueing?

Answer 36

They rely on self-generated cues.

Question 37

Which diary study examined autobiographical memory over time?

Answer 37

Linton (1978).

Question 38

What is the testing effect and which study strongly demonstrated it?

Answer 38

Retrieval practice improves long-term memory more than restudy and Roediger & Karpicke (2006).

Question 39

What materials were used in Roediger & Karpicke (2006)?

Answer 39

Prose passages and idea units.

Question 40

what did SSSS and STTT mean in Roediger & Karpicke (2006) and how much forgetting occurred in each?

Answer 40

SSSS : studying 4 times (about 52%) STTT : studying once then three recall tests (about 10%)

Question 41

Who first reported the testing effect?

Answer 41

Hanawalt (1937)

Question 42

When can restudy outperform testing?

Answer 42

On immediate memory tests

Question 43

is the testing effect robust?

Answer 43

yes

Question 44

Which meta-analysis confirmed the testing effect?

Answer 44

Rowland (2014)

Question 45

Does the testing effect generalise beyond students?

Answer 45

Yes, including older adults

Question 46

Which study demonstrated testing effects in older adults?

Answer 46

Meyer & Logan (2013).

Question 47

One proposed mechanism of testing is semantic elaboration. What is it?

Answer 47

Retrieval activates related concepts that update the memory trace

Question 48

Which study supported semantic elaboration in testing?

Answer 48

Carpenter (2009)

Question 49

What is retrieval effort?

Answer 49

Greater benefit from difficult retrieval attempts.

Question 50

Why are difficult tests more effective?

Answer 50

They require more cognitive search and reinstatement

Question 51

Which researchers studied retrieval effort effects?

Answer 51

Pyc & Rawson (2009); Bjork (1975)

Question 52

Why is “effort” considered a description rather than a mechanism?

Answer 52

It does not explain how memory is changed

Question 53

Did Carpenter et al. (2009) show elaboration causes testing benefits?

Answer 53

Not conclusively

Question 54

Is elaboration alone as effective as testing?

Answer 54

No

Question 55

Which study compared testing, elaboration, and study and what advantage did testing show?

Answer 55

Lehman, Karpicke et al. (2014) and better recall and fewer errors

Question 56

What is the episodic context theory of testing and how does it relate to reinstatement?

Answer 56

Testing updates memory with new contextual information and difficult tests require more mental context reinstatement

Question 57

How does episodic context theory explain testing benefits?

Answer 57

More cues can later trigger recall.

Question 58

Which study proposed episodic context updating?

Answer 58

Lehman, Smith & Karpicke (2014)

Question 59

What do theories of testing have in common?

Answer 59

Memory updating

Question 60

Does repeated testing change memory contents?

Answer 60

Yes

Question 61

What does testing do to memory durability?

Answer 61

Makes memories more resistant to forgetting.

Question 62

Are encoding strategies always optimal for long-term learning?

Answer 62

No

Question 63

Why might encoding and long-term learning differ?

Answer 63

Testing changes what cues are effective.

Question 64

What are two key ways to avoid forgetting and do other mechanisms contribute to forgetting?

Answer 64

Use effective cues and practise retrieval and yes

Question 65

What brain regions are engaged during episodic encoding?

Answer 65

Sensory cortex, prefrontal cortex, and hippocampus

Question 66

What role does the prefrontal cortex play in encoding?

Answer 66

Meaning-making and organisation

Question 67

What role does the hippocampus play in encoding?

Answer 67

Binding multi-element memory traces

Question 68

How is episodic retrieval triggered?

Answer 68

By a partial cue matching the stored memory

Question 69

What is the hippocampus’s role in retrieval?

Answer 69

Initiating recollection

Question 70

What happens after hippocampal triggering?

Answer 70

Reinstatement of original cortical activity

Question 71

What role does the prefrontal cortex play in retrieval?

Answer 71

Strategic monitoring and control.