A Level Psychology > Methodological Concepts > Flashcards

Methodological Concepts Flashcards

(54 cards)

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1
Q

Aim

A

the purpose of the investigation, generally expressed in terms of what the study intends to show. It is written before the experiment is carried out and does not predict the outcomes.

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2
Q

Hypothesis

A

the testable statement which predicts the difference or relationship between the variables in a particular investigation.

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3
Q

Types of hypotheses

A
  • null
  • alternative
  • directional
  • non-directional
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4
Q

Null hypothesis

A

This is a testable statement stating that any difference or correlation in the results is due to chance.

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5
Q

Alternative hypothesis

A

This is a testable statement stating that there is a significant difference, relationship or effect between variables, and the results are not due to chance.

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6
Q

Directional hypothesis

A

This predicts that there will be a specific relationship between two variables.

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7
Q

Non-directional hypothesis

A

This predicts that there will be a relationship between the two variables, but does not specify the direction of the relationship.

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7
Q

Independent variable

A

the factor under investigation in an experiment which is manipulated to create two or more conditions and is expected to be responsible for changes in the DV.

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8
Q

Dependent variable

A

the factor in the experiment that is measured and is expected to change under the influence of the IV.

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9
Q

Operationalisation

A

defining variables so that they can be accurately manipulated, measured or quantified and replicated.

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10
Q

Extraneous variable

A

variable which either acts randomly, affecting the DV at all levels of the IV, or systematically, affecting only one level of the IV, which can obscure the effect of the IV, making the results difficult to interpret.

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11
Q

Confounding variable

A

a type of extraneous variable that varies with the IV and systematically affects the DV.

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12
Q

Types of extraneous variables

A
  • participant variable
  • situational variable
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13
Q

Ways to control situational variables

A
  • standardisation
  • counterbalance
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14
Q

Types of data

A
  • qualitative
  • quantitative
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15
Q

Advantages of qualitative data

A
  • detailed and in-depth
  • can be used to understand why a person thinks, feels or acts in a particular way
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16
Q

Disadvantages of qualitative data

A
  • subjective interpretation as words rather than numbers are used
  • reduced internal validity due to researcher bias (they may only select data that fits into the hypothesis or aim of the study)
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17
Q

Advantages of quantitative data

A
  • easier comparison and statistical analysis (as data is numerical)
  • objective and scientific (as data is numerical)
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18
Q

Disadvantages of quantitative data

A
  • no information on why a participant acted in the way they did
  • can be reductionist (reduces complex ideas and behaviours to a number or percentage)
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19
Q

Population

A

group sharing one or more characteristics from which a sample is drawn.

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20
Q

Sample

A

a group of people selected to represent the population in a study.

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21
Q

Sampling technique

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A

method used to obtain the participants for a study from the population.

22
Q

Types of sampling techniques

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A
  • opportunity sampling
  • volunteer sampling
  • random sampling
23
Q

Opportunity sampling

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A

This is when participants are chosen because they are available at the time and place where the study is being carried out.

24
Volunteer sampling
This is when participants are invited to participate in studies via advertisements or emails.
25
Random sampling
This is when all population members are allocated numbers, and a fixed amount of these are chosen unbiasedly.
26
Advantages of opportunity sampling
- large numbers of participants can be obtained relatively quickly and easily
27
Disadvantages of opportunity sampling
- unlikely to gain a wide variety of participants to allow for generalisation
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Advantages of volunteer sampling
- high ecological validity as generalisations are stronger as dropout rates are lower (participants are more likely to participate)
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Disadvantages of volunteer sampling
- low external validity (unlikely to gain a wide variety of participants to allow for generalisation)
30
Advantages of random sampling
- high ecological validity (generalisations are stronger as sample is more representative of the target population)
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Disadvantages of random sampling
- low ecological validity as representative sample cannot be guaranteed (obtaining details of the population may be difficult) - low external validity as generalisations may be weakened if dropout rates are high
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Ethics
set of moral principles that guide psychologists to consider the welfare of participants and wider society in their work.
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Ethical guidelines for human participants
- minimising harm - informed consent - right to withdraw - lack of deception - confidentiality - privacy - debriefing
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Ethical guidelines for animal participants
- minimising harm - replacement - species - numbers - pain, suffering and distress - housing - reward, deprivation and aversive stimuli
35
Validity
the extent to which a researcher is testing what they claim to be testing.
36
Demand characteristics
features of an experiment that give away the aims.
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Types of validity
- internal validity - external validity - ecological validity - concurrent validity - face validity
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Internal validity
how well an experiment controls confounding variables.
39
External validity
how well the findings of an experiment can be generalised to other settings and populations.
40
Ecological validity
how well the findings in one investigation would generalise to real-world setting and everyday situations, beyond the controlled laboratory environment.
41
Concurrent validity
how well a measure is in agreement with a pre-existing measure that is validated to test for the same concept.
42
Face validity
subjective measure of how well an experiment appears to measure what it is intended to measure.
43
Reliability
the extent to which a procedure, task or measure is consistent.
44
Types of reliability
- internal reliability - external reliability - inter-rater/inter-observer reliability
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Internal reliability
whether the procedures are standardised.
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External reliability
whether the results of a procedure can be replicated from one time to another and gain consistent results.
47
Inter-rater/inter-observer reliability
whether two researchers interpreting qualitative responses will produce the same records from the same raw data.
48
Ways to test the reliability of a study
- split-half method - test-retest method
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Split-half method
This is when the results of two halves of the questionnaire or interview should be the same when the questions are the same but just presented in a different way.
50
Test-retest method
This is when a participant is given the same questionnaire or interview twice with some time (e.g. 6 months) in between, to see if they give similar answers.
51
Measures of central tendency
- a mathematical way to determine the typical or average score from a data set. - including the mean, median and mode.
52
Measures of spread
- a mathematical way to describe the variation in a data set. - including the range and the standard deviation.
53
Methods of data analysis
- bar charts (discrete data) - histograms (continuous data) - scatter graphs (data from a correlational analysis)
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