1
Q
Memory Stages
A
1) Eccoding
2) Maintenance
3) Retrieval
2
Q
What is Encoding
A
- repetition
- Elaboration (actively)
- Spacing out not cramming
3
Q
Effects of Repetition
A
- the more repeated studies on the first day the less time it takes to learn the 2nd day
4
Q
What is elaboration and the effects of elaboration
A
- concept maps
- Blunt found participants who read the test twice and participants who read it once and created a connect map both did well
- they did 30% better than those who read the test once
5
Q
What is the effects of spacing
A
- better long term comprehension
- spacing leads to better memory
- when participants were immediately test after the crammed participants did better but when the test was delayed the spacing participants did better
6
Q
Ecoding variability
- should you study topics separately or mixed
A
- both are good but mix is better
- blockers did better on practice problems
- mixers did better on test performance
7
Q
Maintenance and Retrieval
A
- the testing effect
- understadning and forgetting
- what you forget isn’t actually forgotten because the next time you try to remember its easily remembered
8
Q
Roediger retrieval practice experiment findings
A
- By dropping some words that you already knew well. leads to much less exposure and you do poor on the test a week later but its faster
- all groups performed the same during the learning phase
9
Q
Blunt practice test experiment
A
- found doing a practice test helped when it came to doing the actual test a few days later
- better than reviewing material and elaborative encoding
- conditions where people thought they would do well didn’t do so well and people who thought they wouldn’t do well did well
10
Q
What is Introspection
A
everything about the mind is consciously accessible, you must reflect on what is going on inside the mind
- this does not allow us to generalize becuase it is based on individuals
- developed by Wilhelm Wundt
11
Q
What is functionalism
A
- proposed by William James
- understanding functions of the mind rather than structure
12
Q
Hermann Von Ebbinghaus
A
- looked at how memory is loss over time
- how quickly can you re learn something
13
Q
Skinner
A
- dissatisfaction with introspection viewed it as unscientific
- believed science of the mind should be limited to what is observable
14
Q
Tabula Rasa (blank slate)
A
- behaviours are learned and shaped through simple condition
- experiences you’ve been exposed to in your life determines who you’re today
15
Q
How do we measure memory
A
1) Accuracy: observing where people do and do not make mistakes
2) Reaction Time: time needed for your mind to processes the information
3) other techniques such as eye tracking devices and motion trackers
16
Q
Ecological validity
A
to what extent do laboratory settings mirror real life situations
17
Q
Applied cognition Research
A
- translating principles from the lab into real world settings
18
Q
What is Amnesia
A
- when someone has lost the ability to remember certain materials due to brain damage
19
Q
Case of H.M
A
- to get Epilepsy under control
- he lost the ability to form new memories
- did not know who he was
20
Q
Kant’s transcendental method
A
- to study the mental world
- begin with the observable facts and then work backward from these observations
- study mental processes indirectly, relying on the fact that these processes, themselves invisible, have visible consequences
21
Q
Tolmans rat study
A
- in the earlier days the rats had not motivation to use the knowledge of the cognitive map
- on day 11 and 12 they had motivation (food) so they had a reason to use what they knew and at that point they revealed their knowledge
22
Q
Central Nervous System
A
- brain and spinal cord
23
Q
Peripheral Nervous System
A
- the Autonomic NS
- The Somatic NS
- Sympathetic NS
- Parasympathetic
24
Q
The Autonomic NS
A
- part of the peripheral NS
- regulates involuntary bodily processes
- heart rate, respiration, digestion
25
The Somatic NS
- part of the Peripheral NS
- carries sensory information from sensory organs to the CNS
- voluntary movement
26
Sympathetic NS
- part of the Automatic NS
| - prepares body for fight or flight
27
Parasympathetic NS
- part of the Automatic NS
- calms the body
- helps the body to conserve energy
28
basic parts of a nueron
1) cell body
2) Dendrites
3) Axon
29
role of the cell body
- contains the nucleus and cellular machinery
30
role of Dendrites
- detect incoming signals
31
role of Axon
transmits signals to other neurons
32
4 cortical lobes along the cerebellum
- occipital lobe
- parietal lobe
- frontal lobe
- temporal lobe
33
Lateral fissure
separates the frontal lobe from the temporal lobe
34
central fissure
separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe
35
longitudinal fissure
- part of the brain that splits the left and the right
| - The deepest groove
36
Role of Occipital lobe
- visual processing
| - reconizes simple colours and shapes
37
Role of Cerebellum
- means mini brain
- movements and balance
- timing
- spatial reasoning
38
Three main structures of the brain
- Hindbrain
- Midbrain
- Forebrain
39
Role of Hindbrain and what parts of the brain
- located at the very top of the spinal cord
- key life function like heartbeat, breathing rhythms, posture, balance, alertness
- includes the cerebellum pons and medulla
40
Role of Midbrain and what parts of the brain
- coordinating movement
- eye movement
- multisensory processing
- regulating pain experiences
- superior and inferior colliculi
41
role of superior and inferior colliculi
- blindsight
- involved in motor control and multi sensory
- contains a spatial map of the world around you
- superior: visual
Inferior: auditory
42
What is blindsight
ability to see things even though you're not aware of them
43
damage superior and inferior colliculi affects...
your visual consciousness
44
parts of the forebrain are
- cerebral cortex
- the four lobes
- the fissures
- subcortical structures
45
Parietal lobe
- Spatial processing and attention
46
Frontal lobe
- decision making
- higher thinking
- reasoning
- conductor of the brain
- interacts with the rest of the brain.
- tells the rest of the brain what to do
47
parts of the Subcortical structures
- Thalamus
- Hypothalamus
- Hippocampus
- Amygdala
- Basal ganglia
48
Thalmus
- part of the subcortical structure
- sensory delay
- connections to every region of the brain
49
Hypothalamus
- part of the subcortical structure
- simple motivated behaviour such as eating, drinking, sex
- regulates the hormones when cortisol gets released into your brain
50
Hippocampus
- part of the subcortical structure
| - long term memory
51
Amygdala
- part of the subcortical structure
- emotion
- detecting positive stimuli indicators of safety or of available rewards
52
Basal ganglia
- part of the subcortical structure
- habitual behaviours
- collection of nucleic closer to the front of the head
- when damaged causes Parkinson's disease
53
Sensory primary
- first cortical receiving area of sensory input
54
Sensory secondary
- further perceptual processing
55
motor primary
- last cortical area before motor output processed
56
motor secondary
- motor planning and control
57
contralateral
- touch is on the left but correlated to the right side
58
primary auditory cortex is organized...
Tonotopically meaning it is organized by frequency
| - high pitched frequencies are the back and low are the front
59
Lateralization
- hemispheres are connected by commissures
- theses connections are via white matter bundles
- the two halves of the brain work together the functioning of one side is closely integrated with that of the other side
- This integration is done by commissures
60
the more sensory receptors the more...
more parts of the cortex it takes up
| e.g. tongue has more sensory receptors so it takes up more parts of the cortex than your core
61
three white matter bundle commissures
- corpus callosum (largest one)
- anterior commissure
- posterior commissure
62
right hemisphere is dominant for
- spatial processing
63
left hemisphere is dominant for
verbal processing
64
Capgras syndrome
- result from damage to specific sites on the right side of the frontal and temporal lobes.
This damage disrupts circuits involving the amygdala
- someone with the syndrome is fully able to recognize the people in her world but is convinced that they people are imposters
- the emotional processing is disrupted “You resemble my father but trigger no sense of familiarity, so you must be someone else.”
65
how does facial recognition work
- two separate systems in the brain
- one leads to a cognitive appraisal "i know what my father looks like and i can perceive that you closely resemble him"
- the other is an emotional appraisal "you look familiar to me and also trigger a warm response in me"
- when these two appraisals agree the result is a confident recognition "you are my father"
66
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
enables us to track moment-by-moment activity levels in different sites in a living brain
- highly variable, because the results depend on what task the person is performing.
67
Phineas gage
- iron rod went through the front part of his brain
- damage led to severe personality and emotional problems
- damage on the left side of the brain led to a disruption of language skills
68
neuropsychology:
the study of the brain’s structures and how they relate to brain function.
69
clinical neuropsychology
to understand the functioning of intact, undamaged brains by critically observing cases involving brain damage.
70
lesion studies
- a specific area of damage
| - lesions from medical procedures or brain injuries
71
structural imaging
generating a detailed portrait of the shapes, sizes, and positions of the brain’s components
72
functional imaging
tells us about activity levels throughout the brain
73
computerized axial tomography (CT scans)
provide a three-dimensional X-ray picture of the brain.
- relatively stable, changing only if the person’s brain structure changes (because of an injury, perhaps, or the growth of a tumor).
74
positron emission tomography (PET scans)
introducing a tracer substance, the scan keeps track of this radioactivity.
- tells us which tissues are using more of the glucose
- highly variable, because the results depend on what task the person is performing.
75
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI scans)
relies on the magnetic properties of the atoms that make up the brain tissue, and provides detailed pictures of the brain
- relatively stable, changing only if the person’s brain structure changes (because of an injury, perhaps, or the growth of a tumor).
76
electroencephalogram
recording of voltage changes occurring at the scalp that reflect activity in the brain underneath
77
alpha rhythm
be detected in the brain of someone who is awake but calm and relaxed
78
delta rhythm
is observed when someone is deeply asleep.
79
gamma rhythm
this rhythm plays a key role in creating conscious awareness
80
event-related potentials
measure changes in the EEG in the brief periods just before, during, and after the event
81
localization of function
figuring out what’s happening where within the brain.
82
The cortex is divided in to three categories
1) motor area
2) sensory area
3) association area
83
motor area
contain brain tissue crucial for organizing and controlling bodily movements.
84
Sensory areas
contain tissue essential for organizing and analyzing the information received from the senses.
85
Association areas
support many functions, including “thinking.”
86
primary motor projection areas
the departure points of motor areas
| - for signals leaving the cortex and controlling muscle movement.
87
primary sensory projection areas.
arrival points contained in regions of motor areas
| - for information coming from the eyes, ears, and other sense organs.
88
agnosias
disruptions in the ability to identify familiar objects
- e.g. can recognize a fork by touching it but not by looking at it.
- due to lesions generally in the occipital cortex, or in the rearmost part of the parietal lobe
89
neglect syndrome
individual seems to ignore half of the visual world.
- e.g. shave only half of his face and eat food from only half of his plate.
- usually due to lesions in the parietal lobe
90
Broca's aphasia
- difficulty in producing speech
- understands language but cant speak they're limited to nouns and verbs
"lunch pizza"
91
glia
- help to guide the development of the nervous system in the fetus and young infant
- support repairs if the nervous system is damaged
- control the flow of nutrients to the neurons
92
Specialized glial cells
- provide a layer of electrical insulation surrounding parts of some neurons
- this insulation dramatically increases the speed with which neurons can send their signals.
93
Coding
how the microscopic nerve cells manage to represent a specific idea or a specific content
94
action potential
a signal that moves down its axon, which in turn causes the release of neurotransmitters at the next synapse, potentially causing the next cell to fire.
95
Ginkgo
helpful for people who have circulatory problems or who are at risk for nerve damage, and one group that may benefit is patients with Alzheimer’s disease
96
When the researcher asks the participant to repeat a word what part of the brain is stimulated
- primary cortex then a little bit of motor cortex and association
- once they're done saying the word you see activity in the association cortex and primary cortex activity starts to fade
- when the person repeats the word back there is activity in the auditory cortex becuase they hear themselves say it out loud
97
electrocorticography
- maps out regions using electoral
| - invasively measuring electrical activity from large areas of cortex
98
Patient W.J
- Had epilepsy surgeon went in and cut the white matter bundles to control it
- Cut his corpus coliseum 2/3 of the white matter bundles were cut
- Only able to report what's coming from the right visual field
- "what do you see on the left" " I see a fork"
Cant tell you he sees a spoon but his left hand knows to grab the spoon
99
cause of Aphasia
- lesions in areas near the lateral fissure
| - stroke in the left
100
Wernicke's Aphasia
- fluent speech output, but little meaning
| - jumble of words that sound right but dont make sense
101
Electroencephalography EEG
- use scalp electrodes to measure electrical activity produced by neurons
- high temporal resolution (fast)
- what is happening millisecond to millisecond
- low spatial resolution
- You're never going to figure out what parts of the brain generated them
- if enough of them active together you can pick up on that activity
102
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
- magnetic pulses to stimulate or inhibit neurons
- temporary lesions
- affords casual conclusions
103
N170
elicited by perception of faces
104
Goal of perception
- perception is not reality
- goal is not replicate the outside world it is ambiguous. your brains job is to try to figure it out using past experiences
105
How do we see
Light -> Cornea -> lens -> retina
the cornea and lens focus the light on the retina
106
Rods
- sensitive to dim light
- Lower acuity
- colour blind
- none in the fovea
107
Cones
- cant function in dim light
- higher acuity
- colour sensitive
- mostly in the fovea
- none in the periphery
108
blind spot
- made up of bundles of ganglia cells and bipolar cells
109
roles of bipolar cells and ganglion cells in vision
- send signals toward the brain
| - axons of ganglion cells from optic nerve
110
Lateral inhibition
- horizontal cell and amacrines cells
| - a pattern in which cells, when stimulated, inhibit the activity of neighboring cells.
111
Akinetopsia
- a disruption of movement perception, with other aspects of perception still intact.
- cant detect that an object now is in a position different from its position a moment ago, but she reports seeing “nothing in between.”
- example L.M who got it from a blood clot in her brain
112
role of light in vision
- Light is produced by objects in our surroundings such as the sun, lamps, candles and then reflects off other objects which causes the processes of visual perception
- Some of this light hits the front surface of the eyeball, passes through the cornea and the lens, and then hits the retina, the light-sensitive tissue that lines the back of the eyeball
- The cornea and lens focus the incoming light
113
Why does the muscle tighten in the eye
the lens bulges somewhat, creating the proper shape for focusing the images cast by nearby objects
114
Why does the muscle relax in the eye
the lens returns to a flatter shape, allowing the proper focus for objects farther away.
115
Receptive Field
the size, shape and location of the are in the visual world to which that cell responds
116
Center surround cells
- smaller receptive fields in fovea
- larger in periphery
- if there is light in the central region it become more activated
- if there is light in the surrounding area it becomes more inhibited
- if line shines at both it come back to baseline
117
The Hermann Grid Illusion
- only happens in periphery not centre of vision
118
Where and what pathways
the where allows you to know where things are in space with the purpose of guiding you
the what pathway extracts shape and texture information to identify objects
119
Binding
3 contributions to binding
1) space
- the organization of these brain areas are spatial
2) Synchronizing
- nuerons respond at the same time but following a different pattern for different objects
3) attention
- researcher told participants to focus on the shapes and this eliminated binding error
120
Top down contributions to perception
1) simple visual features
- extracting simple features of light
- combing these little features
2) object recognition
- thats a face thats a building
3) knowledge
- we make sense of the environment using knowledge
- we need to retrieve all the information what does a face tell us if they're happy or sad
121
Shape Constancy
correct perception of an objects shape despite changes in its shape on the retina
i.e. door
122
Brightness and colour Constancy
- objects should not change brightens under different light sources
123
Gestalt principles
- the way people fill in the pieces is constant person to person
124
Binocular Depth perception (redundancy)
- the eyes get slightly different 2- views of the same 3-D scene
125
optic nerve
- the cells that link retina to brain are already analyzing the visual input.
- the nerve tract that leaves the eyeball and carries information to various sites in the brain
126
edge enhancement
lateral inhibition exaggerates the contrast at the edge
127
single-cell recording
procedure through which investigators can record, moment by moment, the pattern of electrical changes within a single neuron.
128
role of cells in Area MT
etecting movement in the visual input at the same time that cells in Area V4 are detecting shapes.
129
role of P cells
provide the main input for the LGN’s parvocellular cells and appear to be specialized for spatial analysis and the detailed analysis of form.
130
role of M cells
provide the input for the LGN’s magnocellular cells and are specialized for the detection of motion and the perception of depth
131
perceptual constancy.
the constant properties of objects: sizes, shapes, brightness
132
size constancy
you correctly perceive the sizes of objects despite the changes in retinal-image size created by changes in viewing distance.
133
unconscious inference
we don’t run through a conscious calculation every time we perceive an object’s size, but we’re calculating nonetheless
134
closer objects cast....
further objects cast..
larger retina images
smaller retinal images
135
interposition
the blocking of your view of one object by some other object
136
linear perspective
pattern in which parallel lines seem to converge as they get farther and farther from the viewer.
137
binocular disparity
it’s informative only when objects are relatively close by.
138
motion parallax
tells you about the spatial layout of your world, but only if you’re moving
139
Texture gradients
are informative only if there’s a suitably uniform texture in view.
PSYC 2650
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