1
Q
What is a concept
A
- mental representation of things
- building blocks from which all knowledge is created
- allow us to categorize and apply knowledge
2
Q
Exemplar
A
one object that is a part of a category
e. g. exemplar: gryph category: mascots
- more flexible
- provide information about category variability
3
Q
Classical view of concepts
A
- philosophical
- concepts can be defined by conditional statements usually about features
- concepts are lists of necessary and sufficient conditions
- e.g. every object with properties A, B, C, D belongs to category Y and every objects that belongs to category Y has properties A,B,C,D
4
Q
Problems with the classical view
A
- applying concepts to human mind it starts to break down becuase faily common concepts do not have a classical definition
e.g. games
Characteristics: played by children -> gambling is an expectation, engaged in for fun -> professional sports is an expectation , involves competition -> solitaire is an expectation - inconsistency with an individual: category boundaries are fuzzy
e. g. if asked if an olive is a fruit people change their mind when asked more than one
5
Q
Typicality
A
- members of category differ in term of how well they represent the category as a whole
e. g. sparrow is a typical bird chicken is atypical - affects categorization
- degree to which a particular object or situation or event is typical for its kind
6
Q
graded membership
A
rating of all members are not equal
7
Q
Typicality and Generalization
A
- People are more likely to take knowledge about typical example’s and apply it to atypical exemplars
8
Q
Typicality and conditioned fear generalization
A
- typical mammals were paired with aversive shock during conditioned phase the fear response is generalized for atypical animals but further spread out less it applies
9
Q
Prototype theory
A
- concepts are specified by a central member that possess all of the characteristic features of the concept
- central member is not an exemplar and likely doesn’t exist in the real world
- they should be easy tp categorize even if never seen
10
Q
Posner’s prototype experiment
A
- created categories bases on 4 prototypes
- showed examples of these prototypes but not the actual prototype
- without prior experience they were able to categorize these prototypes
- even tho they never saw the prototype they were better at identifying them but old was identified faster this means theres a problem with this theory
11
Q
Exemplar theory
A
- we don’t form a single example (prototype) its through a bunch of items
- created through as an average of what you’ve seen before
- individual exemplars are stored in memory
12
Q
Family Resemblance
A
- no defining features but there are features that are common in the family
- ordinary categories may not have features that are shared by all but there are characteristics
- these features allow you to recognize a dog is a dog
13
Q
production task
A
- ask people to name as many birds or dogs as they can. According to a prototype view, they’ll do this task by first locating their bird or dog prototype in memory and then asking themselves what resembles this prototype
So birds close to the prototype should be mentioned first; birds farther from the prototype, later on.
14
Q
Whittlesea testing exemplar theory
A
- created prototypes (letter strings)
- created a list of exemplars either changing either 2 letter, 3 letter of 4 letters
- every exemplar had a matching exemplar that differed by 1 letter across the lists
- every word in list C there is a 2 letter difference in list A. List B is most similar to both
- a better transferring from list A to list B
15
Q
prototypes
A
- less storage
- less to process when categorizing
16
Q
Prototype vs exmplars Brooks study on skin disease
A
- expert dermatologists and inexperienced medical residents are shown labelled pictures of skin diseases and asked to judge how typical each one is of tat diagnostic category
- then asked to categorize new pictures that are unlabelled that were from the same diagnostic categories they were either similar or dissimilar from the original images
- experts do better on similar ones than dissimilar this suggests that experts are using exemplar theory they are remembering the original image
- residents don’t have a huge effect
- to some extent concepts are defined by exemplars
17
Q
Theory based concepts
A
- prior knowledge influences how people categorize objects
18
Q
how are concepts organnized
A
-hierarchical organization
- property inheritance
- lower level categories inherit higher level properties but not vice versa
(only goes in one direction)
- it takes longer depending on how far we have to travel in the network
e.g. can a canary sing this will be fast you don’t have to move a cross multiple networks
- the more modes you have to cross the longer it takes you
e.g. does a canary have skin
this takes longer becuase you have to cross more levels
19
Q
levels of categorization
A
superordinate level (tool) -> Basic level (Hammer) -> Subordinate level (claw hammer)
20
Q
Basic level of categorization
A
- objects are identifies faster if they are from the basic level
- its a level people spontaneously use
- first categories children learn
- balances the trade offs between informativeness and distinctiveness
- single word
21
Q
exemplar based reasoning
A
- a new object resembles your grandpas chair and if grandpas object is a chair then its safe to say the new object is a chair too
- some categories rely on knowledge about specific category members
22
Q
anomia
A
an inability to name common objects. But the specific loss depends on where exactly the brain damage has occurred.
23
Q
propositions
A
defined as the smallest units of knowledge that can be either true or false
24
Q
local representations.
A
Each node represents one idea so that when that node is activated, you’re thinking about that idea, and when you’re thinking about that idea, that node is activated.
25
distributed representations
in which each idea is represented, not by a certain set of nodes, but instead by a pattern of activation across the network
26
connection weights
the strength of the individual connections among nodes.
27
Chapter 10:
Language
28
Psycholingustics
study of the mental aspects of language acquisition, production, comprehension, and representation
29
Sentence
coherent sequence of words
| - statement that means something that is complete
30
phrase
group of words that serve a single grammatical function
31
word
a complete, discrete unit of meaning in a language
32
Morpheme
the smallest language unit that carries meaning
| - meaning of words
33
phoneme
- the smallest unit of sound that serves to distinguish between words in a language
- not a whole word some part of a word that is associated with a meaning
34
Manner of production
- nasal cavity and oral cavity
| - flow of air this flow can go either way but changes of the flow creates a change in the sound
35
place of articulation
Point of airflow restriction
when you say cat T air flow is stopped at the front of your mouth C is at the back of the throat
36
Coarticulation
- refers to the fact that in producing speech, you don’t utter one phoneme at a time
- adjacent phonemes are blended
- words blending together
- makes speech production faster and more fluent
- the "s" in soon as you're making the s sound your lips prepare to make o
37
Phonemic restoration effect Warren study
- first s in legislature deleted and replaced with sound of cough
- no one knew where the cough occurred most believed there was no sound was missing
- speech illusion
- context affects perception of phonemes
- perception of phonemes is not a bottom up stimuli we try to make sense of the sound, if something is missing our brain will fit it in with the right sound if it makes sense with the context
- if there is no cough people have no trouble identifying where the sound is missing
38
Perception through auditory context pollack study
- listened to speech with just the first word or first 2 or first 3 or first 4
- they found people are better at identifying the missing word when given more context
39
Categorical perception Lisker study
- when people produce the sound Ba it happens right away Pa is off by few milliseconds
- when voicing happens early people hear Ba when voicing happens really late few people hear Ba and thinks its Pa
40
Generatively
- the capacity to create an essentially endless series of new combinations all built from the same set of basic units
- endless amount of sentences
41
Syntax
- rules that govern the ordering of words and phrases in a sentence and how those words are related
42
phrase structure rules
- how rules are defined
- how to join basic elements
- noun phrase, verb phrase, verb, determiner, adjective, adverb, pronoun, preposition
43
descriptive rules
rules describing the language as it is ordinarily used by fluent speakers an listeners
44
Perspective rules
rules describing how something is "supposed to be"
45
Garden path sentences
grammatically correct sentences that suggest one interpretation based on the beginning of the sentence but another when the whole sentence is read
- as you process it left to right they lead you to one interpretation but you cant infer the right interoperation till you have re read the whole sentence
46
Surface structure
particular words used to convey meaning
47
deep structure
underlying meaning of the sentence
| - the meaning behind the surface structure
48
Clifton syntactic ambiguity study
- used ambiguous sentence but they manipulate the meaning of the sentence
- one sentence noun attached the other sentence verb attached
- they found people are faster at reading verb attached sentences than noun attached sentences
- this is becuase people are guessing structure rules as they're reading
49
Semantics
- aspects of language related to meaning
50
Semantics study Kutas
- hooked people up to a EGG
- EGG allows us to measure in real time
- read sentences one word at a time
- asked questions about sentences to measure their knowledge
- some sentences made sense and some did not
- sentence that did not make sense we saw a negative n400
51
Semantic expectation violation
you were expecting something that has a different meaning
| "he spreads the warm bread with socks"
52
Neville anomalies study
phrase strure anomailes
semantic anomalies
- phrase structure anomalies negative n175 happens only in the left
- anomalies is more negative
- semantic anomalies negative see n400 bilateral both hemisphere
53
Extralinguistic context train study
- a group is asked "the dutch trains are ____ and very crowded the fill in the black is either yellow, white, or sour
- negative n400 for the semantic violation (sour) and world knowledge violation (white)
- white makes perfect sense but this was asked to dutch individuals who know the trains are yellow
54
Prosody
- the patterns of pauses and pitch changes that characterize speech production
- conveys extralinguistic context like mood
"the old man the boats" you would hear a pause after old
55
Pragmatic language
- ability to use language effectively in order to achieve a specific purpose
- body language
- context
- inferences about
listeners
comprehension
56
Linguistic Nativism
- Language in innate
- chomsky
- possess universal grammar that provides foundation for language learning
- not a blank slate
- learning requires universal grammar to be tuned to native language
57
Poverty of stimulus
- parents reinforce semantic correctness but not syntactic correctness
- no training speech segmentation
58
Linguistic empiricism
- language and grammar are only acquired using basic learning mechanisms following exposure to the language
- were not limited to what our parents teach us
59
saffran language acquisition study
- 8 month old babies listened to 2 min speech streams
- 4 words "bidaku, padoti, golabu, tupiro" arranged in random order
- every time bi was represented da was always followed after
- when they added new words children were able to recognize the old ones becuase they were more engaged in the new words
- they were able to pick up on the 4 words through syllables
60
categorical perception
- refers to the fact that people are much better at hearing the differences between categories of sounds than they are at hearing the variations within a category of sounds.
- you can hear the difference between a g and k but you cant here the difference within each of these categories (a p sound from another p sound) but this is what we want
61
nonfluent aphasia
- damage to the brains left frontal lobe area known as Broca's area
- can understand language they hear but cannot write or speak
- extreme cases: cant say a word
mild: only part of vocabulary is lost
62
fluent aphasia
- damage to wernikes area
| - talk freely but they say very little
63
over regularization errors
e. g. “Yesterday we goed” or “Yesterday I runned.”
| - overgeneralize their use of the plural ending
64
linguistic relativity
- claim that people who speak different languages inevitably think differently
- language differences can lead to corresponding differences in how people remember and how they perceive
65
linguistic relativity study with accidental mistake
- After viewing videos of accidental events, Japanese and Spanish speakers are less likely than English speakers to remember the person who triggered the accident
- The language you hear guides what you pay attention to, and what you pay attention to shapes your thinking.
66
Chapter 11
Visual knowledge
67
The minds eye
you can see pictures even though they're not there in the real world
68
Francois Galton
- self reported introspection
| - people differed widely in reports (vividness, detail, extent of visualization)
69
Kosslyn map study
- asked participants to remember the map
- asked them to imagine a black spec and asked to go from one destination to another in straight pathway as fast as you can
- people had the capacity to visualize maps accurately
- their imagination preserved the original properties of the map and generated it internally
70
Mental rotation study
- presented pairs of images to participants
- presented in different orientation but always presented in pairs
- asked participants are those pair images the same
- to evaluate mental rotation is required
71
Roediger study on imagery and perception
3 conditions
- showed pictures of the word
- imagine each word you see
- judge the pleasantness of the word
- when studied they did better becuase they were primed
- the picture group did better
72
Roediger goens study via imagery and perception
- when you imagine you imagine goens that why you're able to detect the farm in the goens recoverable condition than the goens nonrecoverable condition
73
dieter binocular rivalry study
- one eye will see red the other eye will see blue
- the colours dont merge
- your brain will alternate in the colour it sees
- red blue glasses one eye is going to see the word blue the other eye is going to see word red and your brain just alternates what it sees consciously
74
Pearson Rivalry test
- two stimulus one to the left eye the other to the right
- shown a gridded red and a gridded green
- asked which colour is more prominent
- people tend to have a consistent dominant colour
- when asked to imagine the colour they saw perviously there was a boost on how likely they were able to see that colour again
- when asked to imagine the non dominant colour it drops down to chance you eliminate the stable perception. there is a 50/ 50 percent chance for each colour
75
brain areas activated using a flash light study
- when shown a flashing light LGN (thalamus) is activated and V1 (primary visual cortex)
- when imagining flashing light you see the same activation but just not as strong
- asked people to imagine walking in their hometown we saw the same activation but a little bit of extra activity in the dorsal where pathway
76
knauff spatial imagery study
- shown a grid with some sections filled in
then shown a grid with a section highlighted and asked was the section filled in the previous grid
- we seeing the biggest enhancement in the occipital what areas but more activation but most in parietal cortex
77
Can imagery be improved through training
- no effect of training on visual imagery ability
- by doing the task over and over again your perceptual judgements get better through judgement
- they were told to imagine either red or green for 8 seconds to create a bias
- no evidence that you get better overtime by imagining it has an effect but you're not getting better
78
can spatial imagery be improved by playing action video games for 10 hours
- yes playing video games does improve spatial imagery
- playing video games has benefits only works when it has first person shooter this trains visual system
- used mental rotation to test
- men are better at spatial imagery than women
- once woman were trained they were just as good as the men initially
- action video game players get dramatically better
PSYC 2650
flashcards
Decks in class (3)
# Cards
