1
Q
4 fields of anthropology
A
- Socio-cultural anthropology
- Linguistics
- Archaeology
- Physical anthropology (biological anthropology)
2
Q
Socio-cultural anthropology
A
- ethnography, cross- cultural comparisons, humans, intraspecific
3
Q
Linguistics
A
Language across space and time
4
Q
Archaeology
A
Human and cultural remains
5
Q
Physical anthropology (biological anthropology)
A
- anatomy, physiology
- primatology–> interspecific, across humans and Non-human primates
6
Q
Why study primates in anthropology?
A
- primates are our closet living relative (learn about humans through primates)
- like other primates, humans are highly social
7
Q
Two assumptions that must be true to study primates in anthropology
A
- That there is a close evolutionary relationship between humans and NHP
- Some morphological and behavioural characteristics we conceive as “human” are actually inherited from our NHP ancestors
8
Q
Derived
A
- traits that appeared in a species after the last common ancestor, specialized trait
- example bipedalism
9
Q
Primitive traits
A
- ancestral/ generalized
- traits that were probably shared with the last common ancestor
- example pentadactyly
10
Q
Homology
A
A trait found in two or more species that is shared due to their common ancestry
11
Q
Homoplasy
A
A trait found in two or more species that has evolved independently in each (do not have a shared common ancestor)
12
Q
Shared traits
A
A) language and cognition
B) capacity to transform ones environment (ex: took use)
C) transmission of knowledge and the emergence of cultural traditions (ex potato washing)
13
Q
Examples language and cognition
A
- Self awareness: mirrors and apes
- use of language
14
Q
Examples of capacity to transform ones environment
A
Tool use:
- chimps use tools for fishing termites/ ants
- orangutans testing water depth
- capuchins use hammer and anvil stones to crack nuts
15
Q
Examples of transmission of knowledge and the emergence of cultural traditions
A
- hand clasping during grooming
- Stone play
- potato washing by macaques
- indicates social learning
16
Q
7 things we learn about humans and the human phenomenon by studying NHP:
A
1) to understand variation in social systems
2) to analyze derived traits
3) to understand early human behaviour
4) more sophisticated modelling: strategic models
5) to understand human behaviour and variation today
6) primates are flagships/ indicator species that can be used as a gauge of ecological disturbance
7) biological similarities mean primates can contribute to biomedical advances
17
Q
Ways Social systems vary between species:
A
- number of individuals in a group
- male: female ratio
- degree of sexual dimorphism
- degree of paternal investment in offspring
- quality and intensity if relationships between individuals
18
Q
Sexual dimorphism
A
- Morphological differences between males and females (often seen in canines and body size)
- associations between large male canine size and aggressive competition over access to mates
- suggest that if a species of early hominids has markedly sexually dimorphism males, it is likely males were involved in intense conflicts
19
Q
Referential model
A
The use of a particular species for drawing analogies with others, when you use one species to understand a different species
20
Q
Colour blindness
A
- many capuchin monkeys are colour blind
- colour blind sees camouflaged items better (ex invertebrates)
21
Q
Primate Order
A
Mammals
22
Q
Mammals are:
A
1: are endothermic (“warm-blooded- generate own body heat)
2. Have hair on bodies
3. Breastfeeding through mammary glands
4. Most are born alive (except monotremes)
23
Q
Primate order includes:
A
- genus homo, apes, monkeys, tarsiers, strepsirhines
24
Q
Genus homo examples
A
Us, Neanderthals, denisovans
25
Apes examples
Chimpanzees, gibbons, gorillas, orangutans
26
Monkeys examples
Baboons, macaques, capuchins, etc.
27
Strepsirhines examples
Lemurs, lorises, galagos
28
New world
Mexico, South America
29
Old world
Africa, Asia
30
Primate pattern
- no one trait identifies all primates
- general tendencies expressed by all primates= overall primate pattern
- fallen into 4 main complexes
- primates possess combination of ancestral and derived traits
31
Ancestral (primitive) trait
More closely resembling the common ancestor to the group
| - does not mean less successful or less evolved
32
Derived traits
Specialized traits that are not shared with the last common ancestor
- example guenon facial patterning
33
4 complexes that make a primate a primate
1. Grasping hands and feet
2. Visual system
3. Large complex brains, and associated behaviour
4. Skeletal and dental features
34
Pentadactyly
- five fingers on hand, ancestral
35
features of grasping hands and feet:
- pentadactyly (ancestral)
- nail, not claws (derived)
- power and precision grip (derived)
- opposable thumb (derived)
- sensitive tactile pads (derived)
- vast majority have opposable big toe (humans are the exception, human trait is derived)
36
What is special about callitrichids with the the grasping hands and feet?
- have re-developed claws, within primates this is a derived trait
37
Traits of the visual system:
- vision is enhanced
- forward facing eyes
- stereoscopic vision (w/ depth perception)
- increased acuity
- trichromatic colour vision
- ancestral
38
Stereoscopic vision
- accurate depth perception
| - an overlap in the visual field from each eye creates a 3-D image
39
Primate traits associated with the visual system:
- reduced reliance on olfaction
- reduction of the snout
- reduction of the olfactory centres of the brain, increase in visual centres
- flattening of he face (less prognathic)
40
3. Large complex brains
- large brains relative to body size compared to other mammals
- big neocortex
- altricial newborns
- speciality
41
Big neocortex
link between large brain size, socialist, and learning: responsible for cognitive abilities such as reasoning and conscientiousness
42
Altricial newborns
- long period of development, born in a helpless state
- birth of single, relatively helpless young
- little reliance on instinct
- social learning is important
- infants are dependent on mothers
- grasping hands that are used to cling so that infants can go with mothers and are not left in nests
43
Implications of large brain size
- primates as a group have long periods of post natal care
- great ability to learn from experience
- great reliance on learning
44
Skeletal and dental features
- retention of an unspecialized skeleton, particularly in limb structure:
1. Retention of clavicle or collar bone- allows for greater range of motion that specialized quadrupeds
2. Retention of bones in forearm (radius, ulna) and lower leg (tibia, fibula)- flexibility
3. Reduction # of teeth
4. Trunks uprightness
45
Dental formula:
```
#s for half of jaw
Incisors. canines. Premolars. Molars.
```
46
Humans dental formula:
2.1.2.3 (derived) - 32 teeth in total
47
Ancestral mammal dental formula
3.1.4.3
48
Primitive primates dental formula (strepsirhines & NWM)
2.1.3.3
49
Later primates dental formula (OWM, Apes, Humans)
2.1.2.3
50
Trunkal uprightness
- derived
- especially enhanced in apes and humans
- only for short periods of time once and a while (when compared to humans)
51
Why did primates evolve their particular set of traits: 4 theories
- the arboreal theory
- the visual predation theory
- the angiosperm radiation/ co-evolution theory
- fine- branch niche theory
- snake predation theory
52
Arboreal Theory
- primate pattern represents an adaptation to an arboreal habitat or to life in the trees
- most early mammals were arboreal, but primates stayed in the trees
- grasping hands, stereoscopic vision are assests
- complex 3-D environment with high risks
- proposed by Elliot- smith &a woods-jones (1920) further supported by Les Gros Clark
53
Arboreal theory objections
- other orders have arboreal species that do not share primate pattern (ie opposums, treeshrews, squirrels, Racoons)
- is claws are a better adaptation for climbing up and down vertical supports as opposed to nails
54
Visual predation theory
- primate pattern represents an adaptation to foraging for insects in the terminal branches of trees
- Cartmill
- based in comparative method, found similarities to other visual predators
- later adapted to include low light as a component of the hypothesis
55
Visual predation theory objections
1. Fails to explain development of larger primates
2. Forward facing eyes and stereoscopic vision are present in non-primate species
3. There are visual predators with lateral eye sockets
56
Angiosperm radiation/ co-evolution theory
- primates co-evolved with flowering plants
- Sussman & raven 1991
- leads to speciation and organisms become differentiated from one another and their common ancestor
- fruits & flowers offered new niches leading to primate specialization
- primates roles as pollinators & seed dispensers. At have helped spread flowering trees
- vision for distinguishing fruit in low light, grasping hands for better handling
57
Angiosperm radiation theory objections:
1) angiosperm first appear in the fossil record millions of years before primates
2) some mammals had grasping hands before the evolution of flowering plants
3) plenty of animals have a varied diet and are nocturnal without selection having favoured primate- like characteristics
58
Fine- branch niche
| Sussman, Rasmussen, Raven
- earliest primate relatives were exploiting the products of co-evolving angiosperms, along with insects
- slender supports if the terminal branch milieu (trees to consume angiosperms and insects)
- the recent discovery of carpolestes simpsoni provides support for the primate/ angiosperm coevolution
59
Carpolestes Simpsonii
- plesiadapiform ("archaic primates")
- first euprimates had grasping feet and blunt teeth adapted for eating fruit, but retained small divergent orbits
- nocturnal predation predicted tight coevolution of binocular vision and grasping hands
60
Snake predation theory
- grasping hands & feet evolved separately from the visual system, which is best explained by the need to detect snakes
- Lynne Isbell
- grasping hands evolved before visual system
- orbital convergence & better depth perception aids the ability to break camouflage
- evolved in response to selective pressures by constructing & later venomous snakes (snakes were the first predators of crown- group placental mammals)
- orbital convergence especially aids sight in lower visual field
61
Which is the best theory?
- non- mutually exclusive
| - many support fine branches niche
62
Primate evolutionary history
- primates first appear in fossil record roughly 65 mya (but molecular evidence suggests primates may have appeared as early as 90 mya)
- mammals exploded at this time and filled ecological niches left by dinosaurs
63
Plesiadapiforms
- archaic primates
- Diverse group of primate like mammals
- Paleocene (65-
- North America, Europe, and Asia
- share long, grasping digits, but most have nails not claws
- molecular data may imply an earlier origin
64
Plesiadapis
- long tail
- flexible limbs
- claws, not nails
- rodent like jaws & teeth
- orbits lateral
- snout long
- post- orbital bar absent
65
Timeline
```
All under Cenozoic: Paleocene (65-54.8 mya)
Eocene (54.8-33.7mya)
Oligocene (33.7-23.8 mya)
Miocene (23.8-5.3 mya)
Pliocene (5.3-1.8 mya)
Pleistocene (1.8mya- 10,000 years ago)
Holocene (10,00 yrs ago- present)
```
66
Euprimate origins
- euprimates (true primates) from Eocene deposits (54-34 mya)
- North America and Europe (which were tropical then)
- molecular data may imply an earlier origin for the primates but fossils have not been found
67
Stem of Basal primates in the Eocene
- Varied from mouse- sized (30g) to fox sized (7kg)
- arboreal quadrupeds t to advanced leapers
- diurnal or nocturnal
- smaller forms are insects & fruits, larger ones ate leaves
68
How are the characteristics of distinct animals determined?
1. Using living populations as referential models
2. Studying fossil remains of extinct animals (size, teeth, bony deposition s where muscles inserted and pulled at bones)
69
What can be determined from extinct animals and from which features?
1. Diet
2. Ranging patterns
3. Mating systems
4. Dispersal patterns
70
Diet
- determined by teeth & chewing muscle inserts
71
Frugivores
Fruit eaters
| - large incisors, flat molars
72
Folivores
Leaf-eaters
- small incisors, large molars with shearing crests
- well developed tenporalis & masseter muscles
73
Ranging patterns
- determined using diet and body size
- frugivores tend to have large ranges (fruit is patchy and spread out)
- folivores tend to have small ranges (leaves are relatively evenly distributed
- day range tends to increase with body size
74
How are mating systems determined from fossil records?
- determined with teeth and body size
- sexual dimorphism
- large male canines compared to females= males competed intensely over females, polygnous mating systems
- male canines same as females= monogamous or promiscuous mating system
75
Dispersal patterns (which sex leaves group)
- does not directly correlate with morphology
| - patterns across major taxonomic divisions
76
Taxonomy
- the scientific naming of categories of organisms
- clusters of traits due to common ancestry
- used to distinguish broader categories
- commonly used traits include morphology, genetics, behaviour, pelage, vocalizations
77
Linnaean classification system
Life, domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
78
3 difficulties with taxonomic classification
1) there continue to be new primates found
2) classification problems at the species level (lumpers vs splitters)
3) re- classification based on new molecular data
79
Lumper
Taxonomist who tends to minimize the variation exhibited by populations or species, and group then together in the same taxa
80
Splitter
Taxonomist who recognizes variation by using different names (ie splits up rather than lumps)
81
Biological species concept
- animals that cannot inter-breed and produce viable young are considered separate species
(Morphology can be deceiving)
82
Strepsirhine Characteristics
- Distribution: only old world (Africa, Asia, Indonesia)
- nocturnal (mostly)
- large eyes
- tapetum (eye shine)
- wet nose (rhinarium)
- reliance on scent marking
- Independently mobile ears
- immobile upper lip
- inexpressive face
- dental formula 2.1.3.3
- laterally facing heelbone, reduced upper incisors, grooming claw, dental comb
- vertical clinging and leaping
83
Lemurs on Madagascar
- thought to have gotten to Madagascar by rafting from mainland Africa
- diversified to fill every niche
- survived in Madagascar but not on the African mainland, likely due to competing monkeys
- large lemurs decimated by human hunting
84
Cheirogaleidae
- dwarf, mouse, and fork-crowned lemurs
- arboreal
- smallest primates
- nocturnal
- solitary
- omnivorous (insects)
85
Daubentoniidae
```
-Aye aye
Nocturnal
Solitary
-Continually growing incisors
-Omnivorous (long bony finger- specializes in extractive foraging)
- bear threatened- symbol of death
```
86
Lemuridae
- ring tailed, brown, rugged lemurs
- arboreal and terrestrial
- medium sized
- diurnal (most lack tapetum lucidum)
- large diversity in diet
- tend to have diverse social interactions
87
Lepilemuridae
- sportive lemurs
- arboreal
- medium sized primates
- mostly nocturnal
- solitary
- more folivorous
88
Indriidae
```
Woolly lemurs and sifakas
Arboreal and terrestrial
Medium to large sized
Smaller tooth comb
Folivorous
Mostly monogamous
```
89
Why did some lemurs become diurnal, but no lorisiformes did?
- competition on mainland Africa
90
Characteristics of lorisiformes
Solitary
| Eat insects and fruits
91
Lorisidae
- Asia (Lorises) and Africa (loris relayed species)
- lorises, pottos, and angwantibos
- distribution: central Africa and S/SE Asia
- arboreal and nocturnal
- slow climbers
92
Galagidae
Galagos (bush babies)
- mainland Africa
- arboreal and nocturnal
- vertical clingersm and leapers
93
Haplorhini characteristics
- diurnal (except tarsiers and owl monkey)
- dry noses: less reliance on olfaction
- flatter faces
- reduced sense of hearing (immobile ears)
- mobile upper lip & highly expressive faces
94
Tarsiidae
- only found in SE Asia
- large eyes and ears
- lack tapetum lucidum
- different eye- brain (thalamus) connection that strepsirhines and monkeys
- elongated tarsus bone in foot- running and jumping
- monogamous or one- male/ multi- female groups
- nocturnal
95
Platyrrhini
- new world monkeys: Mexico and Central America
- all arboreal
- smaller body size than OWM
- all have tails
- dental formula 2.1.3.3
96
Many old world monkeys are terrestrial- why aren't New world monkeys?
- greater predation pressure for a relatively small- bodies radiation?
- availability of productive savanah- type habitats is lower in the neotropics?
97
Cebidae
- squirrel monkeys (Saimiri)
- arboreal
- diurnal
- diverse appearance
- diverse diet (omnivorous)
- diverse social organization
98
Pitheciidae
Titi monkeys, sakis, uakaris
- arboreal
- diurnal
- small- medium sized
- diverse diets
- diverse social organization (Titis are monogamous, others are polygamous)
99
Callitrichidae
Marmosets and tamarins
- smallest monkeys
- claws instead of nails
- monogamous and cooperative polyandrous groups
- can have twins
- male care of infants
- little sexual dimorphism
- territorial
100
Atelidae
- howler monkey, spider monkey, Woolley monkey, muriquis
- big
- arboreal
- diurnal
- prehensile tails
- polygamous
- fission- fusion societies
101
Aotidae
```
Owl monkey
Arboreal
Nocturnal
Monochromatic vision (advantage in low light and capture conditions)
- monogamous
- parental care
- territorial
```
102
Cercopithecinae
Baboons, macaques, guenons
- Africa and Asia
- all diurnal
- many species are large bodied
- diverse diets and wide range of habitats
- diversity social organizations (many MM/ MF)
- some exhibit extreme sexual dimorphism
- more ground dwelling. Species that any other primate group
- cheek pouches
- ischial callosities
- sexual swelling
103
Cheek pouches
Used to store food
2 hypothesized functions
1) cheek punches reduce vulnerability to predation
2) cheek punches increase feeding efficiency by reducing competition
104
Ischial callosities
- thickened skin as a result of repeated contact and friction; used for sitting
105
Sexual swelling
Most common among cercopithecines (except for a few colonies and chimps)
- visual cue for receptivity/ ovulation
- more common in multi- male multi-female mating systems
106
Colobinae
- colobus, langurs, leaf, and odd noses monkeys
- Africa (Columbus) and Asia (leaf and odd- noses monkeys)
- diurnal
- mostly arboreal
- many species large bodied
- wide range habitats
- folivorous
- complex stomachs, energy minimizers
- diversity if social organizations
107
Interorbital region cercopithecinae vs colobinae
Colobinae- broad
| Circepithecinae- narrow
108
Incisors
Colobinae- narrow
| Cercopithecinae- broad
109
Jawbone
Colobinae- deep
| Cercopithecinae- shallow
110
Molars
Colombians- high cup
| Cercopithecinae- low cups
111
Feeding behaviour and digestion
Colobinae - complex stomach
| Cercopithecinae- cheek pouches
112
Limbs and tails
Colobinae - long legs long tails
| Cercopithecinae- similar arms and legs
113
Hominoidea
```
Apes and humans
No tails
Largest size and weight
Largest brain to body size ratio
More upright posture
Longer gestation and maturation
```
114
Hylobatidae
- lesser apes
- gibbons and siamangs
- SE asia
- monogamous
- territorial
- duetting
- suspensory locomotion: brachiation
- anatomical adaptations: long strong arms, elongated hook-like fingers, shortened reduced thumbs, short hind limbs, erect inflexible spine
115
Convergent evolution
Suspensory locomotion
| Distantly related species converge on a similar solution to the same ecological pressure
116
Ponginae
- orangutans
- Asia greater ape
- only found in Borneo and Sumatra
- arboreal
- solitary
- frugivorous
117
Gorillinae
```
Gorillas
African Great ape
Largest primate
Terrestrial
Highly folivorous
Dian fossey
```
118
Kay's threshold
- approximate body weight threshold that separates entirely insectivorous primates from those that cannot maintain a totally insectivorous diet= 500g
- catching insects take a lot of energy, only worth it if you are small
119
Homininae
Chimpanzees & bonobos
- terrestrial and arboreal
- fission- fusion societies
- knuckle walking and facultative bipedalism
- sexual swelling
- GG- rubbing
120
Chimpanzees
```
Omnivorous
Hunt
Tool use
Male philopatric and male dominant
High levels of aggression
```
121
Bonobos
```
Frugivorous
Recent evidence of hunting
- low evidence for tool use outside of captivity
- male philopatric and female dominant
- low levels of aggression
```
122
Social attraction
Individuals seeking out proximity to each other outside of environmental stimuli
- more than a response to predation or to localized food resources
123
Socialization unique to primates?
- argued that socialite is not such an extreme adaptation for other species as it is for primates
- the combo of differentiated within- group relationships, marked social boundaries, kin- based social relationships, use of allows and coalitions is unique to primates
124
Two key costs to group living
1) intra- group competition: more competition for food because members of the same group are always nearby
2) increased vulnerability to infectious diseases
125
Benefits to group- living:
1) resource defence hypothesis
2) predation defenders hypothesis
(Not mutually exclusive)
126
Resource defence hypothesis
- being in a group improves access to resources compared to being alone (defending food & finding food)
- large vs small group advantage
127
Predation defence hypothesis
- being in a group offers better protection from predators:
- collective detection (more eyes and ears)
- dilution effects (each individual less chance of being caught)
- deterrence (mobbing can scare off predators)
- during flight (swarming confuses predators)
128
Other benefits once you are grouped
- mates readily available
- increased feeding. Rates due to decreased individual efforts towards vigilance for predators
- female and young may benefit from male protection from conspecifics
129
What behaviours show strong relationships between primates?
- affiliation: grooming, huddling, proximity maintenance)
- agnostic support (coalition formation)
- minimal aggression
130
Male- biased dispersal
Males leave females stay
131
Female biased dispersal
Females leave males stay
132
Female- bonded
Females stay in natal group
133
Non- female bonded
Patrilineal or both male and females disperse
134
Gamy
Multiple of both sexes
135
Gyny
Females
136
Andry
Males
137
Parallel dispersal
Individuals emigrating either
1. With other group members, or
2. Into groups with familiar individuals
138
Benefits to parallel dispersal
1. Having coalition partners may aid their entrance into new groups
2. Individuals can maintain ties with related individuals, even when they change groups
3. Individuals have increased survival because more members during transfer = greater protection from predators
Anth 311
flashcards
Decks in class (4)
# Cards
