Midterm 2 study Flashcards

Question

What are some age related changes in infants ability to scan faces?

Answer 1

Around 1 month of life, infants scan faces primarily looking at the edges of a face, like the jaw line, ears etc. This is thought to be due to the poor contrast sensitivity. By 2 months of age however, babies scan the whole face rapidly looking at all facial features.

Answer 2

at 4 months of age infants develop smooth pursuit eye movements.

Answer 3

We know that the infants visual world changes a lot when they start to sit, crawl, and stand! Infants prefer to look at faces until around 6 months of age and then become more interested with objects.

Answer 4

As the brain develops it starts to specialize in certain types of skills. The example discussed in class is facial recognition. 6 month old babies could discriminate between monkey faces where as 9 month olds can not. These data suggest that while 6-month-olds are still generalists, equally good at perceiving human and monkey faces, 9-month-olds have become specialists, no longer readily perceiving the dimensions that matter for discriminating between monkey faces.

Answer 5

From 3 months we are really good at discrimination between any faces of any races, by 6 months we are already poorer at this. At 9 months we only recognize our own races well. By one year, they are more likely to share toys with same race.

Answer 6

Using another persons gaze to track something they are looking at. It is very helpful socially, shared looking between an adult and infant is beneficial to the infants learning.

Answer 7

the perception of objects as being of constant size, shape, colour, and so on, in spite of physical differences in the retinal image of the object

Answer 8

the identification of separate objects in a visual array. The moving rod behind a block experiment. Researches had a rod move left to right behind a block. You could see the top of the rod and the bottom but the middle was hidden by the block. When shown the rod without the block, babies were more surprised when it was 2 rods and nothing connecting them in the middle. This suggest that babies can understand that segments of an object can exist when out of view. The reason for this is common movement, both parts were moving a the same time and speed.

Answer 9

Object permanence Location of objects in the dark: When shown an interesting object and then having the lights turned off, the baby can still find it in the dark. An example of object permanence

Answer 10

a procedure in which infants are shown an event that should evoke surprise or interest if it is inconsistent with their prior knowledge Example: Baillargeon first habituated young infants to the sight of a screen rotating through 180 degrees. Then a box was placed in the path of the screen. In the possible event, the screen rotated up, occluding the box, and stopped when it reached the top of the box. In the impossible event, the screen rotated up, occluding the box, but then continued through 180 degrees, appearing to pass through the space where the box was. Infants looked longer at the impossible event, showing that they mentally represented the presence of the invisible box. Babies are more surprised in impossible events that violate their expectations. This example actually tests object solidarity.

Answer 11

Research has found that babies have: Object segregation (rod and box example) object permanence (searching for previously shown objects in the dark example) object solidarity (surprise from impossible physics event) In Piaget's sensory motor period, he said infants can not do this.

Answer 12

Auditory localization: ability to find where a sound comes from Babies can do this in quieter rooms. Over time it becomes much more precise. Auditory localization makes children look around, born with it. They look for sounds even in the dark. The smaller the head the harder it is.

Answer 13

Babies prefer language over music but they do like music too! Lullabies and universal songs have universal effects on babies! Prefer consonance over dissonance, studied using HPP, babies pay more attention to consonant tones vs dissonant tones Young infants can process rhythm, melody, but this can be perceptually narrowed. They are better than adults at this.

Answer 14

Movement and listening work together, babies can process ambiguous rhythm as duple vs triple based on how the parent is bouncing to the beat. Bouncing together also influences pro social behavior in babies. If bounced at the same time as someone else, they are more willing to engage with that person, if at different times, less likely.

Answer 15

learning the relationship between a behavior and consequences. Text example, kicking attached to a mobile for babies, they understand they can make the mobile move. So as young as 3 months they can learn and even 2 weeks later they can remember. Behavior and consequence.

Answer 16

Learning through detection of statistical patterns. Most commonly used for the learning of language. The two types of statistics infants learn best from are: Frequency: the occurrence of an item, high vs low Transitional probabilities: the probability that one item will follow (or be followed by) another You can habituate infants to certain patterns, upon showing them a new pattern even if only changed a tiny bit, they will notice and look longer. This shows they pay attention to transitional probabilities and co-occurrences.

Answer 17

Imitation is copying a behavior based on observation. Babies are much more likely to immediate humans than machines, babies understand there could be reason and intention behind humans actions. Babies are selective in who they imitate for a lot of reasons, kindness, reliableness, not just looking the same. EX: If a human tries to take off a lid of a cup but fails, babies understand the intention and also try to pull it off.

Answer 18

infants can make predictions about the world based on prior knowledge. They have expectations for outcomes based on probability and intention. Red vs white ball example. They make rational predictions and update understanding too. EX: If infants see multiple people fail to turn on a toy, they blame the toy and move on. If they see people successfully use the toy, and then it doesn't work for them, they give it to a caregiver to make it work.

Answer 19

Empiricits think infants have some basic biases and reflexes but otherwise everything is learned: Attention, basic learning, and memory.

Answer 20

infant knowledge as an emergent property arising from the constant interaction of multiple, mutually influential components like the infant's physical abilities, cognitive state, the social and physical environment, and the specific task

Answer 21

some basic reflexes that and then sensorimotor schemes, rest “learned” from assimilation/accommodation – equilibration for both small change and larger stage transitions

Answer 22

This is aka Core Knowledge. The view knowledge that is from built in foundations that then go through conceptual change

Answer 23

He thought that children were born with just a tiny bit of knowledge, and using constructivism they can learn about the world. Discontinuous stage theory: The way the child makes sense of the world is distinct in each stage. BUT there are continuous elements: Constructivism remains continuous Assimilation, accommodation, equilibrium

Answer 24

Sensorimotor: - 0 to 2 - Children learn through senses. - Children use action schemas (EX: is x object reachable, suck able etc) to learn from the world, no question is asked but rather they do the action to find out, all extremely in the moment. No representation of the world yet. Preoporational: child begins to hold a view of the world, BUT there is no logic to their views. They fail simple concrete events like, conservation. Concrete: Understanding physics interaction, concrete events, abstract ideas are hard still Formal operational: can hold abstract ideas and symbolism about the world

Answer 25

In this stage the child understands the world in terms of the actions she can take on it. All experimental. Children are actively trying to make sense of the world through actions and senses.

Answer 26

actions that children can take on the world to learn more. In later stages, thinking of the world. Infants are active in their own development.

Answer 27

Example of sucking: Babies have a reflex to suck, they make an active scheme about sucking on a breast this is assimilation, acting on information about a scheme. Then a bottle is given and they have to modify their scheme for bottles since it is different. Banging is a scheme (an action that can be done on the world) that babies use to learn. Assimilation occurs when they find new objects that fit into an existing action but when an object or action does not work they must accommodate that scheme.

Answer 28

Piaget thought that infants could NOT: - Understand object permanence - A-not-B Error

Answer 29

the tendency to reach for a hidden object where it was last found rather than in the new location where it was last hidden

Answer 30

Piaget thought that kids could NOT: - think from others view points (kids are egocentric) - centration: the tendency to focus on a single, perceptually striking feature of an object or event (uneven scale ex) - conservation: the idea that merely changing the appearance of objects does not necessarily change the objects’ other key properties (liquid container ex) Children can now hold symbolic representations. they can hold knowledge to represent things in their mind now

Answer 31

Thought to be the start of: Achievement of representational thought Understands that objects not only continue to exist, but have stable properties even when can’t act on them (so don’t make A not B error at all) * Can represent the properties of objects * Can plan actions on world in head * Can use symbols to stand for absent objects * Deferred imitation in place

Answer 32

*Comprehensive * Has face validity * Useful * Is to some extent, testable/falsifiable * Makes some predictions

Answer 33

*Some constructs vague & poorly operationalized * May underestimate the infant – order correct, ages wrong – underlying constructs incorrect * May underestimate the parent’s influence * Process of development challenges

Answer 34

a class of theories that focus on the structure of the cognitive system and the mental activities used to deploy attention and memory to solve problems

Answer 35

Cognitive development is continuous Infants have limited capacity Development occurs through advances in information processing - Memory EX:Babies hold fewer amounts of information at a time according to information processing theories, adults hold 7 things, babies hold 2 simultaneously, but then 3, then 4 etc. - Encoding - Processing speed - Planning - association - recognition - generalization Increased knowledge improves encoding, recall and integration of new information EX: Having seen something recognizable, there is more time spent on learning new characteristics rather than identifying a new object every time when looking at the same water bottle schema. View the child as an active problem solver Better processing speed leads to better memory and encoding and memory limitations get reduced.

Answer 36

approaches that view children as having some innate knowledge in domains of special evolutionary importance and domain-specific learning mechanisms for rapidly and effortlessly acquiring additional information in those domains

Answer 37

Foundations of knowledge are built in the brain before birth, with evolutionary significance. Children are born as active learners, with specialized learning mechanisms/structures that allow children to learn effortlessly.

Answer 38

Objects: Infants have the idea of objects before birth, they don’t discover objects, they do not discover that mechanical interactions exist, they just discover what they are. Agency: Understand the agency of others and that people and animals are goal orientated. (TOMM) Numbers, spatial layouts, and maybe social understanding as well.

Answer 39

Children’s knowledge comes from social interactions * Via guided participation, incorporating the concepts of social scaffolding and intersubjectivity. – Joint attention – Intersubjectivity: Knowledge first only within interactions – Scaffolding: Zone of proximal development

Answer 40

Thought children were social learners connected to others that learn from interaction and help them gain skills and understanding. EX: Kids are told what to do and how to behave, they learn from that and will talk out loud how to behave, which eventually turns into them having internal voices.

Answer 41

Humans have two unique characteristics crucial to complex culture construction. – Teaching other species members – Attending and learning from such teaching * Both universal and cultural- specific knowledge exist

Answer 42

a class of theories that focus on how change occurs over time in complex systems In this theory, there is no one cause or influence that pushes development. It is a larger context of intertwined systems that promote development. All the parts of a system are mutually influential.

Answer 43

Development is active and continuous Depict each child as a well-integrated system with many subsystems that work together to determine behavior

Answer 44

At 7-9 months, infants prefer real objects over pictures, they still try to pick up pictures, mistaking them for objects sometimes. However, there is a large environmental influence. Depending on how much experience an infant has with picture books, they will try to pick up pictures still when they are almost 2 years old. Whereas a 2 year old with lots of picture experience will not make that mistake and can even label pictures. So understanding of symbols seems to require both cognitive development and experience

Answer 45

With lots of picture book experience, infants can start labelling objects in picture books as early as 12 (much earlier than Piaget thought) They can even learn an object paired with a word in a book, then identify it in real life when seeing it for the first time. By 18-30 months infants can even learn series of actions that can be performed to objects from picture books when reading with an adult, then do them to the object upon first contact. Experience matters a lot to development!

Answer 46

They have symbolic representation but it is very limited. They have difficulty holding multiple representations at once. And difficulty updating mental representations if the change is not right in front of them Due to this limitation, it is difficult for preoperational thinkers to have Theory of Mind (TOM)

Answer 47

2.5 year olds are shown a model of a real room. Researcher will hide a toy in the model room then ask the child to find it in the real room. They can't do it! However, if you trick the kids into thinking that the room shrunk into the model, they remember where the toy is hidden. This shows that 2.5 can locate the objects and remember, they just need to think its reality, they do not understand dual representation

Answer 48

Theory of mind is the ability to understand that others have their own unique mental states, such as beliefs, desires, intentions, and emotions, which can be different from one's own. This cognitive skill is fundamental for social interaction, allowing people to explain, predict, and understand the behavior of others. TOM is the field of research that really starts to challenge Piaget's cognitive development theory and the introduction to core knowledge.

Answer 49

Age 2: Kids understand that actions have desires behind them but do not understand that beliefs have influence on actions too. Age 3: Understand that desires and beliefs affect behavior, but have difficulty with false-belief problems Age 5: Find false-belief problems very easy

Answer 50

The Sally and Anne task tests the false belief problem. Task: A comic depicting a little girl, Anne taking a marble out of Sally's basket and putting it in her own box when Sally is not there. Sally comes back and the kids are asked where Sally will look for her marble. If the child has theory of mind, the child will know sally has limited info and say sally will look in the basket, kids who don’t will say the box. Kids can not understand that other people have their own limited evidence about reality that isn’t always the same as the own child's.

Answer 51

They believe that TOM must be built into the infant. Study: Habituated infants with a little stage, set up like a play. There is a person who picks up a slice of watermelon and puts it in a yellow or green box. The stage closes and sometimes the watermelon is secretly moved to the other box. If the adult looks in the the box that she did not put the water melon in first, that does not make sense and the infant will look longer at that scenario. Interpretation: This is meant to show that infants can understand false beliefs. When a violation of expectations happens and an experimenter searches contrary to what the babies think the babies look longer. Done as young as 7 months, babies show they look longer.

Answer 52

Core knowledge theory posits that children are born with a small number of core systems of knowledge (often called modules) These modules and selected by evolution, and each have specialized functions. They are universal and rely on them during information overload. By bringing these individual modules together we can use them to reason and bring about new ideas of the world that we are not born with.

Answer 53

*Innate * Simple (characteristic limitations) * Specific * Separate * Principled * Cultural and Species Universal * The foundation for later learning * And conceptual change is possible

Answer 54

We have core knowledge in: Objects Numbers Geometry/shapes Agents Social groups

Answer 55

The 3 C's are: Cohesion: Objects move as connected wholes Continuous: objects move on connected unobstructed paths Contact: objects do not interact at a distance Support: objects require something to act on them These are the 4 ways that infants innately understand objects.

Answer 56

It enables infants to: Perceive object boundaries Represent the complete shape of objects that move or are out of view Predict when objects will move or will come to rest

Answer 57

Limits are: Specific to inanimate objects It does not support reasoning about food or other non-object entities like, dirt and water. We can only track about 3-4 objects at once These capabilities and limits are seen in non-human primates and cross culturally.

Answer 58

Violation of expectation procedure. Infants typically look longer at events that are impossible or unexpected. This procedure has revealed to us that infants have knowledge of objects far earlier than Piaget thought.

Answer 59

While infants do start with an understanding of how objects work, it is sometimes inaccurate and takes time to develop. The example is different experiments depicting objects in impossible positions. The first image, shown at 3 months, is of two objects, one support object and one object floating in the air, at 3 months babies are surprised. BUT if you show infants a picture of a support block and a 2nd block just floating on the side of it, only making contact, then they are not surprised despite it being impossible. It takes time in development and slowly (at 6 months) they become surprised by that image.

Answer 60

Core knowledge theorists think infants can track a small amount of objects but CAN NOT add or subtract. When shown an impossible outcome, like placing two objects behind a screen, then the screen dropping and their being only one, infants are surprised. Core knowledge theorists do not think this is arithmetic however but rather tracking of objects. another reason this is not arithmetic is babies can not count until age 5

Answer 61

An imprecise counting system used to make estimations of quantities. Babies can tell which quantities of X object have more or less than each other. Infants can discriminate 3:1 ratios, and this ability gets better with age!

Answer 62

This is precise integer representation based on counting to determine exact amounts. Eventually the ANS and INS come together This number system has to be learned and taught, counting must be taught

Answer 63

Children when they start counting will miscount, for example attributing 2 and 3 to just one object. The often remember the order of numbers 1st without actually knowing what counting is. It isn't until 5 years old babies understand counting. Children learn what 1 is, what 2 is, and then what 3 is, before knowing how to count.

Answer 64

Agents produce actions that are: Goal-directed Efficient Reciprocal Mirrored Follow gaze Infants and other animals are sensitive to what agents can and can not see. This point is important because it is evidence that core knowledge of agents would give the infant a theory of mind

Answer 65

After observing failed actions by humans, infants imitate intended action After observing failed actions by non-humans, infants imitate failed action Children surprised by inanimate objects moving on their own, not by animate objects moving on their own

Answer 66

By 12 months, infants will gaze follow agents and expect there to be something in the spot the agent is looking, they are surprised if there is nothing there. They will even gaze follow objects they think are agents

Answer 67

Infants do not interpret the movement of inanimate objects as goal- directed Agents do not need to follow the 3 C's to be understood

Answer 68

Why do very young children struggle to understand and use symbols, even when the symbols closely resemble what they represent? Methods: There were two conditions, one where kids are shown a model of a room, and the other where kids are shown the same model but made to think that model "shrunk" from a real room. A toy was hid in the room and kids are told to find it in the model or real room. Kids who thought the room was real could find the toy much better. The results strongly support the dual representation hypothesis: young children struggle with symbolic reasoning because they cannot simultaneously think about an object as both a real thing and a representation of something else.

Answer 69

Main questions: * How do infants figure out what to learn? * Does surprisal offer a unique opportunity for learning? * Does ‘core knowledge’ provide a set of primitives from which to evaluate what is expected vs not? And hence to experience surprisal? Idea: Infants have core knowledge about how objects should work, when objects violate those expectations do infants expore those objects more deeply and learn from them better? Methods: The put 11 month olds in 2 conditions Experiments 1–3 – Learning after surprise - Infants saw either an expected event (consistent with “core knowledge” of physics) or a violation (e.g., object passing through a wall or appearing in an impossible location). - Then, infants were taught a new property about the object (for example, that it squeaked). -Researchers measured how well infants learned this new information by tracking their looking time toward the correct object when the sound played. Experiment 4 –6- Exploration and hypothesis testing -Infants again saw either an expected or surprising event. -Then they were given both the “violation” object and a new object to play with. -Researchers observed which object infants explored more and how they explored (for example, banging or dropping it), to see if their actions were related to the kind of violation they saw. Findings: Infants learned better about objects that violated their expectations than about objects that behaved normally. The are more interested and learned better from objects that violate expectations. Also they would engage with objects in a way that corresponded to the violation they saw, so if a ball passed through a wall, they would bang it. Infants test hypothesis about objects that violate their core knowledge expectations.

Answer 70

a category that is organized by set–subset relations, such as animal/dog/poodle Superordinate Basic Subordinate Individual examples

Answer 71

the common-sense, intuitive understanding of mental states like beliefs, desires, and intentions to explain and predict behavior Infants have some self-conciousness infants understand intention infants understand that people are different from eachother

Answer 72

Infants understand what happens when objects collide Early in infancy, they code locations of other objects in relation to their own location and to landmarks. Even 3-month-olds code the order in which events occur. Infants of that age can also use consistent sequences of past events to anticipate future events.

Midterm 2 study Flashcards

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