1
Q
What are the 4 challenges of conducting human sexuality research?
A
- honesty
- representative samples
- bias in design (study design, data collection, interpretation of results)
- consent
2
Q
Why is ‘honesty’ a challenge of conducting human sexuality research?
A
- asking someone to share their sexuality (innermost feelings and attitudes) is very intimate
- even if the research is anonymous and participants are not sharing their information with anyone in particular (ie. completing an anonymous online survey), most people wonder if someone will be able to connect their responses back to them
- socially desirable responding
3
Q
What is socially desirable responding?
A
when participants tell you what they think you want to hear instead of what is actually accurate and true about themselves
- ie. men are likely to inflate their number of sexual partners, while women are likely to deflate their number of sexual partners, to fit in with societal expectations
4
Q
Why are ‘representative samples’ a challenge of conducting human sexuality research?
A
typically find that people who are likely to participate in sex research are in no way random nor representative, and therefore biased
- most researchers prefer random representative samples in any kind of social science research
5
Q
Who is more likely to participate in sex research? (3)
A
younger, more liberal sexual values, and sexually experienced
6
Q
Who is less likely to participate in sex research?
A
- older, more conservative sexual values – these people often uncomfortable talking about sex
- sexually inexperienced – these people are not necessarily uncomfortable talking about sex, but rather they feel like they don’t have anything to contribute since they’ve never done it
7
Q
What is the most common sample for sex research? Why?
A
university students – not representative
- typically younger, Caucasian, and middle or upper class
- most researchers are at universities
- students are a captive audience in class – easy to enter classrooms and distribute a survey, especially if extra credit is offered
8
Q
Why is ‘bias in design’ a challenge of conducting human sexuality research?
A
- heteronormativity – focus of research is on heterosexual couples, and questions focus on penile-vaginal sexual activity
- cisgender – focus of research is on participants who are clearly female or male
9
Q
Why is ‘consent’ a challenge of conducting human sexuality research?
A
challenging to gain parents’ consent to do research with minors
- parents are not interested in (and think it is inappropriate) letting their children talk with a stranger about sex, even if it is a teenager who is sexually active
- but finding out what pre-teens and teens are doing and thinking regarding sexuality is a very important area of study – most of what we know about their sexuality is from larger studies conducted in public schools that ask them about many timely adolescent issues (ie. smoking, drinking, drugs, bullying, suicide, school achievement, self-esteem, body image, and sexuality)
10
Q
What are the 4 types of barriers to successfully implementing SHE programs?
A
- institutional barriers
- school principals
- teachers
- public opinion (parents)
11
Q
What are the 3 types of institutional barriers to successfully implementing SHE programs?
A
- federal government
- provincial/territorial governments
- school boards
12
Q
How does the federal government act as a barrier to successfully implementing SHE programs?
A
it does not necessarily get in the way, but is completely unhelpful because they do not provide guidelines
- considered a barrier because they provide no guidance at all as to what even school boards should do, which makes it difficult to implement a program
13
Q
How do provincial/territorial governments act as a barrier to successfully implementing SHE programs?
A
they do not necessarily get in the way, but is completely unhelpful because they do not provide guidelines
- exception: Ontario requires a certain level of comprehensive sex education
- considered a barrier because they provide no guidance at all as to what even school boards should do, making it difficult to implement a program
14
Q
How does the school board act as a barrier to successfully implementing SHE programs?
A
decides the type of sex education that occurs in all (usually public) schools in a particular region
- can pick an abstinence program if they want
15
Q
How do school principals act as a barrier to successfully implementing SHE programs?
A
principals virtually have no power – can get fired if they go against the school board’s decision
HOWEVER, they can be a barrier if they do not feel the program is appropriate
- ie. if the school board wants a comprehensive program but the principal is very conservative, the principal may go along with the comprehensive program but tell the teacher to cover additional topics superficially
- ie. tell students to ask their parents if they have questions about certain topics
16
Q
How do teachers act as a barrier to successfully implementing SHE programs?
A
- often not well-trained and have no idea how to teach sex education – especially K-5 teachers
- can teach a health class, but choose to not cover certain topics because they are not trained, they feel embarrassed, or they feel like it’s inappropriate
- will tell students to ask their parents when they do not want to answer questions
17
Q
How does public opinion (parents) act as a barrier to successfully implementing SHE programs?
A
- almost always parents, but can also be conservative groups – ie. One Million March for Children (very anti-LGBTQ+ education in K-12 schools)
- 80-85% of parents want schools to teach their children sex education because they don’t want to do it themselves, but they never go to the school board –silent majority
- school board only hears from parents who don’t like the programs and think that it is not good for their children – vocal minority
- therefore school boards make their decision based on the vocal minority
18
Q
How are heterosexual and same-sex/gender couples similar? (4)
A
there are no differences in terms of:
- how they interact with each other
- how they make decisions
- how they divide chores
- how they express physical and emotional intimacy, etc.
19
Q
In what two areas do heterosexual and same-sex/gender couples differ?
A
- sexual behaviour
- conflict behaviour
20
Q
How do heterosexual and same-sex/gender couples differ in sexual behaviour?
A
- frequency of genital contact: gay > heterosexual > lesbian
- this can be explained using the sexual double standard – two men together will involve a lot more initiation
21
Q
What is the sexual double standard?
A
one standard for how men are supposed to behave, and a different standard for how women are supposed to behave (heternormative)
- suggests that men should be initiators, while women should not
- suggests that men are supposed to be more desirous of physical intimacy, while women are supposed to be more desirous of emotional intimacy
22
Q
How do heterosexual and same-sex/gender couples differ in conflict behaviour? (3)
A
three different things that same-sex couples do:
- have a tendency to be more forgiving and take things less personally
- are more upbeat and positive and joking around when fighting
- get less physiologically aroused – ie. heart rate, blood pressure, skin temperature
23
Q
Why is it more challenging for lesbian and gay couples to adopt children?
A
- surrounded by idea that they would not make good parents
- fear that homosexual couples would make their children homosexual – BUT this is NOT true
24
Q
What strengths do children with two moms have that surpass children with heterosexual parents? (4)
A
- more desire to be a mom and have children – moms are more likely to have kids than dads
- spend more time with children
- consider more things before becoming parents – heterosexual couples can make conscious decisions to become parents, but they do not necessarily make conscious decisions to get pregnant
- use more effective parenting techniques – part of conscious decision to become parents may involve reading parenting books, taking parent education course
25
How are children with two dads in comparison to children with a heterosexual dad?
better off in comparison with heterosexual dads:
- parent more like two moms, and less like a heterosexual dad
- behave more like a lesbian mom than a heterosexual dad
- less likely to be abusive – hardly ever spank their children
26
How are children of same gender-oriented parents similar to heterosexual parents? (4)
basic well-being
- psychological adjustment
- peer relationships
- emotion management
- levels of anxiety/depression/suicide
27
What are the advantages for children of same gender-oriented parents compared to heterosexual parents?
more likely to consider that they might not be heterosexual and explore their sexual orientation and gender identity
- usually determine they are heterosexual – but they are at least open to possibilities
- this also makes them open to other people who are considering their sexual orientation and gender identity (ie. be friends with LGBTQ+ individuals)
- most children with heterosexual parents are likely to assume they are heterosexual by default, and not explore their sex or gender identity
less likely to follow traditional gender role behaviour because they do not see this behaviour between two moms or two dads
- household chores, breadwinner-caretaker situation
- more androgenous, therefore more likely to be more flexible and do a larger variety of tasks, and be happier, healthier, and function better in the workforce and the relationship
- do not expect these roles in relationships
- do not expect people to behave in gendered ways – and majority of these children are heterosexual
28
What are the disadvantages for children of same gender-oriented parents compared to heterosexual parents?
they are disadvantaged not because the parents are not heterosexual, but because the outside world does not like that the parents are not heterosexual
- more likely to face discrimination and bullying
29
What are the 3 types of alternative forms of prenatal sexual differentiation (intersex)?
- gene exceptionalities
- chromosomal exceptionalities
- hormonal exceptionalities
30
What are the 2 types of gene exceptionalities?
- X chromosome – SRY gene is present (but should not be)
- Y chromosome – SRY gene is silent or lost
31
What is the X chromosome gene exceptionality?
SRY gene is present on X chromosome (but should not be) – usually a mutation to the X chromosome from the sperm
- occurs in females (XX)
- SRY gene overrides the ovary-promoting gene, therefore mass of tissue becomes male structures even though the individual has XX chromosomes
32
What is the Y chromosome gene exceptionality?
SRY gene on Y chromosome is silent or lost – mutation to the Y chromosome from the sperm
- occurs in males (XY)
- there is ovary-promoting gene on X chromosome, therefore mass of tissue becomes female structures even though the individual has XY chromosomes
33
At puberty, what hormones do individuals with gene exceptionalities (X or Y chromosome) produce?
individuals tend to produce hormones that match their chromosomes, not their gonads
34
What are the two types of chromosomal exceptionalities?
- Turner Syndrome
- Klinefelter Syndrome
35
When are chromosomal exceptionalities identified?
sometimes not identified until later after birth, because you need to know the chromosomal makeup to know
36
What is Turner Syndrome?
individual born with only one sex chromosome, which is always the X chromosome (XO)
- typically have female genitalia – only have an X chromosome with an ovary-promoting gene, therefore mass of tissue becomes female structures
- lacking the second chromosome causes some significant problems/different characteristics – shorter, underdeveloped/no ovaries (not enough ovary-promoting gene), heart issues, hormonal and fertility issues (not enough hormones for puberty, menstruation issues)
37
What is Klinefelter Syndrome?
individual born with an extra sex chromosome, which is always the X chromosome (XYX)
- typically males – because of the Y chromosome with the dominant SRY gene
- lots of ovary-promoting due to having two X chromosomes – underdeveloped/no testes (do not produce enough testosterone), fertility issues, low sperm count, less prominent secondary sex characteristics (shorter, lighter weight, less facial hair, less deep voice) due to less testosterone
38
What are the 2 types of hormonal exceptionalities?
- congenital adrenal hyperplasia
- androgen insensitivity syndrome
39
What is congenital adrenal hyperplasia?
adrenal gland produces too much masculinizing hormones during birth process, and fetus is overly exposed to these hormones at a certain part of development
- typically occurs to XX fetuses (females)
- can be caused by many things, and the significance of the effects can vary greatly – ie. can just be something that the pregnant person's body is doing
- mass of tissue becomes confused, which results in ambiguous-looking parts
40
What is androgen insensitivity syndrome?
not responding to the hormonal messages that tells the mass of tissue what structure to become
- typically male (XY)
- mass of tissue becomes something in the middle
- the only way to know for sure whether individual is XX or XY is to do a chromosomal test
41
When are hormonal exceptionalities identified?
they are almost always identifiable at birth
42
What is internal sorting?
process of deciding what to do with all of the external information (from external value sources) that we obtain
- cognition and information processing – if there are conflicting messages (which there often are), need to figure out where to put it to form our value system
- mostly sorting things by what we agree/disagree with – but things are not black and white when it comes to sexuality
43
When are people able to start the process of internal sorting?
most people are unable to do this well until adolescence – need to have developed abstract thought capabilities
- this is why there are warning labels – parental warning, PG-13, R-rated, 13+, adult rating
- adolescents are better able to decide what works for them, what really applies to them, what they think is right or wrong, and what they want to believe in
- children often get value-based messages very early on – parents guilt them about what they are not supposed to do, and children believe whatever their parents say
- young adults start forming their own ideas – oftentimes it clashes with what our parents think, especially immigrant parents
44
What is the end goal of internal sorting?
your own internal values – ideas and ways of looking at things
- help make decisions that are right for you
45
Are values changeable?
yes – the sorting process is ongoing and lifelong
- exposed to new ideas, ways of looking at things, perspectives
- ie. being LGBTQ+ was historically very not OK
46
Internal sorting is important because you need... (3)
- your own personal sexual scripts
- to know what you are willing to do
- consistency between values and behaviours
47
Why is it important to do internal sorting to know what you are willing to do?
need to know how to respond before the opportunity presents itself
- ie. if you don’t know how you feel about pre-marital sex and don’t go through the sorting process, when someone presents the opportunity to participate in sexual activity you will be unsure if it is the appropriate choice for you because you have not decided how you feel about it
48
Why is it important to do internal sorting for consistency between values and behaviours?
no matter what the value is, it is better off matching it to your behaviour
- can only get consistency by doing internal sorting and obtaining your own values
- behaviours that do not fit with value system will possibly lead to regret
- ie. if you do not believe in pre-marital sex (value), you probably should not do it (behaviour)
- ie. if you are fine with sex without love (value), then sex/dating apps are for you (behaviour)
49
Why is sexual communication difficult? (4)
- lack of a suitable language
- lack of role models
- remnants of the Victorian Era
- sexual double standard
50
Why does a 'lack of a suitable language' make sexual communication difficult?
different people use different words to talk about sex and body parts (clinical terms, slang) – there is no one common language to have this conversation
- want conversations/communication to occur, but it can be difficult – ie. may want to tell partner how you can get an orgasm but don’t know what words to use
- recommended to talk about it with your partner early on – make lists of words that you like using for various sex terms and body parts
51
Why does a 'lack of role models' make sexual communication difficult?
parents are role models for conflict resolution, but not when it is about sex/relationship
- results in unresolved disagreements – you don’t know what to do next because you have never seen this type of issue be resolved
- media often never shows resolution of disagreements
52
Why do 'remnants of the Victorian Era' make sexual communication difficult?
Victorian Era was a time when sex was believed to only be for procreation
- sex for pleasure meant you were self-indulgent, and you will be made to feel guilty about it
- devices used to keep boys and girls from masturbating, or convinced children that hair would grow on their palms to expose and shame them – believed that masturbation led to insanity
present day is still very heavily affected by the Victorian era
- still have significant levels of guilt associated with sexual pleasure, which can stop us from asking for what we really want and therefore partner does not know what to do to help reach orgasm – this holds true more for women
53
Why does the 'sexual double standard' make sexual communication difficult?
different sexual scripts and behaviours for men and women (heteronormative)
- behaviours are what actually makes communication difficult
54
What are scripts?
someone tells you how to behave, how to think, what to feel, and what to say
55
What is the script for men?
supposed to want sex with no strings attached, be initiators, have lots of sexual partners and experiences, like and try various behaviours, masturbate a lot
56
What is the script for women?
supposed to want love/marriage/long-term relationship and not sex, not supposed to initiate/be too forward, slut-shamed if have too many sexual partners, only supposed to like sex in missionary position (man on top) because he is in control, not supposed to want to try various behaviours, not supposed to want to masturbate
57
Do most people feel like the script for men/women fit them?
NO – but they still behave accordingly because they believe or feel pressured that it’s what they are supposed to do
- ie. man does not want to have sex until he is in love
- ie. woman wants to have sex but doesn’t because they know it’s not what nice girls do
58
How do our behaviours make sexual communication difficult?
we don’t actually ask for what we want or behave according to our personal script because we believe we have to behave according to the script that has been set for men/women
- similar to Victorian era in that there is guilt, but sexual double standard is a script that influences you to behave in a way that does not really fit you
- therefore the communication that you express does not even fit your values at all
59
What happens as a result of the difficulty of sexual communication?
end up with limited disclosures or dishonesty – not saying what we really want
- women lie about having an orgasm because they don’t want partner to feel bad, not because they are trying to deceive them
- men may assume what they did with one another woman will work for their current partner
60
What is the attachment theory?
theory about closeness to someone else
- when we are infants, we form an attachment to our caregiver(s)
- want to form a secure attachment
61
What is the intergenerational transmission of parenting styles?
ie. adults who have a secure attachment form a secure attachment with their children
62
What is a secure attachment?
in the first year of life, child learned that if they need something, someone will be there to provide it
63
What is an insecure attachment?
in the first year of life, child had needs that were not met by the caregiver
- child learns to not care if that caregiver is around or not because they do not think that they will do much for them
- cannot fix people who have an insecure relationship – this is internal
64
What is Erikson's Psychosocial Theory?
from infant to adulthood, there are stages in our lives where a crisis needs to be resolved (or a goal needs to be achieved)
- successful resolution of a crisis or achievement of a goal is positive, but an unsuccessful resolution can negatively affect development in various ways
- very connected to attachment theory
65
What is the trust vs. mistrust (1st) stage of Erikson's Psychosocial Theory?
in the first year of life, we either trust that our caregiver will meet our needs, or don’t trust/rely on our caregiver because they are inconsistent
- about both physical and emotional needs
66
How does the trust vs. mistrust (1st) stage of Erikson's Psychosocial Theory relate to attachment theory?
- secure attachment – trust
- insecure attachment – mistrust
67
What is the intimacy vs. isolation (6th) stage of Erikson's Psychosocial Theory?
in late adolescence/late adulthood, we start dating and forming intimate sexual love relationships
68
How does the intimacy vs. isolation (6th) stage of Erikson's Psychosocial Theory relate to the trust vs. mistrust (1st) stage?
- formed TRUST in infancy: likely now prepared to form strong intimate love relationships because you know how to trust others and make your needs known, knowing that someone will take care of it for you
- formed MISTRUST in infancy: learned that you cannot depend on people, and are more likely to find yourself (emotionally) isolated – not much intimate self-disclosure and vulnerability, how can you trust a stranger to love you if you cannot trust your parents to love you
69
What are the 3 things that influence who we fall in love with?
(from a research standpoint, these are very practical things)
- proximity
- homogamy
- marriage squeeze (could also be a long-term co-habitation squeeze)
70
How does proximity influence who we fall in love with?
(people who are physically near you)
internet/long-distance relationships
- can only go so far until you live in the same city/home
- hard to fall in love with someone you never meet
- often only sustainable if there is a strong foundation before they turn into a long-distance relationship
pool of eligibles – all the people you could possibly date
- students at university
- decreases after you leave university and go out into the world
71
How does homogamy influence who we fall in love with?
(we marry people like ourselves)
more about similar basic demographics – age, socioeconomic status, level of education, income, race/ethnicity, social class, religion
- not about common interests or values – partly because basic demographics drive our interests and values
- related to proximity – ie. more likely to be surrounded by people of the same SES
- more similar life experiences and better able to understand where other people are coming from – ie. familiarity with race/ethnicity and/or religion
- more likely to be sympathetic and empathetic of other people’s situations
- more likely to be better at resolving conflict and continuing the relationship
72
What is the only real exception to homogamy (we marry people like ourselves)?
sex (female/male)
- more heterosexual couples than homosexual
73
Do opposites attract?
opposites attract, but do not endure
- we are fascinated by people who are opposite of us, but then eventually we start questioning all of the ways in which we differ
74
What is the marriage squeeze?
women get squeezed out of the marriage market, and women are less likely to fall in love at all
- men are more likely to marry than women
- women are less likely to pair up, therefore do not even have an opportunity to fall in love
75
How does the marriage squeeze influence who we fall in love with?
- more women than men (at any given time) – even if women want to marry, there are not enough men to marry
- divorced women less likely to remarry than divorced men – women are more likely to get custody of children which makes relationships more complicated, while it is easier for men to find a new partner without having the children all the time
- women marry older men – women are way more likely to be widowed than men because of the age gap and life expectancy gap combined
+ FMST 316
flashcards
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