1
Q
when did muscles first appear
A
- They appeared in single celled ukaryotes
- then in sponges with contractile cells but not muscles
- Cnidaria aros first true myocytes
2
Q
What are the different filaments in the cytoskeleton
A
Microtubules
* hollow tubes
* maintain cell shape
* resist griders
* maintain cell motility in Cillia or flagella
* chromosome movements in cell division
Mircofilaments
* 2 intertwined strands of actin
* maintain cell shape
Intermediate filaments
* fibrous cablle proteins
* tension bearing elembts
* anchorage of neucleus and other organelles of nuclear lamina
3
Q
What are the motors
A
- myosins move on actin tracks
- myosins are in every cell but porteins use myosin II
- myosin is arranged in bundles where the heads stick out and are stacked like golf clubs
4
Q
What is the tropomyosin-troponin complex
A
- around the actin molecules
- tropomyocines are like cables and tropinin are the physical blockers for the myosin acting sites
5
Q
What are the different kinds of muscles
A
Smooth muscle - thick and thin filaments but scattered around the cell in all directions
Straiated muscle - repeating units of sarcomeres
Sarcomeres are arranged in end to end into long myofibrils
6
Q
What is the variation in muscle structure and function
A
- all muscles are built on thick and thin filaments
- Innervation pattersn determin whether a muscle contracts once- twitch or has a sustained contraction - tonic
- muscle recruitment determines the contractil force of the arrangements. May be soecific for force or shrotening veolicyt
- Nerve and muscle components determine frequency
7
Q
Whata re muscles to locomotor system
A
- Stretched into skeletal systems attached by tendons and arranged around levers
- They are typically arranged in antagonistic groups where one will be contracted and will be relaxes think bicep and tricep
- SOmetimes they are not however like in fleas when they jumo or kangaroos
8
Q
What are the different phsiology models
A
- Krogh model - Suggests that studying a system or biological process where it can be observed easily or conviently monmitored is good. If you want to know how mammals regulate body temperature look at mice becasue they are so small and simple and easy to observe
- Evolutionary models - can be mathematical or genetic. Hardy weinbird is this or wright fischer. used to see changes in environment mutations or migration
- applied model is either of these
9
Q
What are reoccuring themes in biology
A
- Integrative biology from molecules to organisms - connectioms between genes macromolecules cells, tissues and systems, reductionism and emergent properties
- Form and function variation, both witin and between ani,als, DIstinction between proximate and ultimate causation origgins of variation, regulation, remodelling and evolution of interactons
- Alternative appracohes to homeostasis - Humans are but one species and many animals use fundamentally different solutions to deal with challenges in homeostais
10
Q
Whata re the proximate and ultimate causes of gifraffe
A
- Asking how did a triat arise comes from prixmate cause of ultimate cause.
Why does giraffe have long neck
* how does it use it to its advanatage
* how did it evolve from its ancestors
* what genetic differences explain it
* How does it arise in development
* what physiological challenges exist and how do they cope with it
11
Q
how is evolution and development interdependent
A
- Small set of transcription factors determine how long a structure like the vertebrae continues to grow
- a single gene will determine length of the neck
12
Q
What are unexpected consequences of the girfaffe
A
- Huge heart and high BP
- thick walled blood vessels in limbs
- Strengthened musculoskeletal system to support weight
13
Q
What are the reoccuring terms in animal physiology
A
Integration - giraffe ness depends non similar proteins usedi n different ways to build higher order structures
Emergent properties - How do you go from gene variants to a complex phenotype
Reductionism - mutating a single gene can give insight to complex processes
proximate vs ultimate causation - why does giraffe have a long neck
Regulation - How does homeostasis differ in giraffe because of its neck, is it evolution and development - how dpes giraffe differ from short necked relative
Models - What does giraffe tell us about humans, can you use a mode lto understand giraffe
14
Q
What are the princiuples of animal form and function
A
Animal form and function are correlated at all levels of organization - Physiology is an integrative duscupline. SIze and shape, interaction with the ebvironment, body plans
Feedback control maintains the internal environment in many animals - regulating conforming homeostais and allostaiss, feedback and control
Energy requirements are rleated to size activity and engironment - energy allocation and metabolic rate
Homeostatic processes for thermoregulation form and function and behaviour, - tyhermal statgies and balances
15
Q
How do we determine form and function
A
- to see conections
- undertsanding of how genes are controlled is needed
- How cells interact to make tissues and organs
- How does this relationsho change over time and differ amongst individuals
16
Q
What deternines cell form and function
A
- How does anumals genome result in specific type of cell
- How does cell change itself in repsonse to condictions - plastiocity
- How do differences between individuals arise - evolution
- These are all answered by genes
17
Q
What are cell to cell connections and cellular polarity
A
- Most epithelial cells transport something to the other side
- to do this they need - strong connections to each other
- strctural platform - basla lamina
- polarity - differences/specializations of the cell membrane
- aplical membrane may differ form the basolateral
18
Q
How are cells origanized into layers
A
- Cuboidal epithelium
- SImple saquanamous epithelium
- simple columal epithelim
- Stratified squanamous epiethli,
Apical layer - closest to the outside
basal layer - closest to the inside
19
Q
Understanding differencesi n form and function
A
- Regulation - changes existing hardware in a few mechamisms
- Remodelling or plasticity changes hardware and may be irreverisable
- developmental plasticity is irreverusble
- reversible ie acclimatization, or acclimation
- Differences between indviiduals seen over generations within a speices, artifical and natural selection between species fast slow animals
- Many interactions between regulations, plasticity and evolution
20
Q
What are the different plasticities
A
- Developmental means happens during development and is not going to change likely
- accilimitzation and acclimation is if it grows in an nevinomrnt with predators, Theres a transcutionm that will activate enzymes to develop this
21
Q
What is acclimatization
A
- Reversible changes in physiology in response to environment
- Changes from one season to another is an example
- Dogs change how much fur they shed, temperature triggers is the days they can ciunt hours if daylight nad track it being shorter and begin shedding
22
Q
How can a bird change
A
- within a species many differences arise as a result of developmental and varation between individuals at the same developmental stage
- Birds go from smaller to bigger
- In comparision it is not a mutation because they are stuck with their genome
- Looking at variation of indivudals overtime
- WHat causes closely related species to be related to each other
- What evolutionary events caused lineages to diverge a shared ancestor unrelated lineages
23
Q
What is allometric scaling
A
- Metabolic rate of a mouse will be significant faster for the same mass of elephant
- explanation is body temlerature because high body temperature of mouse allows them to shed weight much faster
- Small animals have a greater mass specific metabolic rate
24
Q
Whata re side effects of temperature change
A
- Changes in metabolic rate from temperature affect organismal function, including developmental rates
- Disruption of food webs including food abundance and phenology
- Secondary effects on aquatic O2 and CO2 levels
- Populations that swim furthest have bigger hearts
25
Describe homeostasis
* Means smae state
* animals change processes dramatically so they remain in tolerable ranges
* allostasis - many things change to keep one thing constant
* Means same state but not really since sometimes we are warm and other times we are cold.This is about keeping temperatures in a reasonable range
* In order for us to keep constant temperature we need to keep raising and lowering it
26
What are antagonistic controls
* Most pathways involved in maintain homeostatsi are controlled by negative feedback loops or reflex control pathways
* Derivations from set point stim and inhibit pathways and work antagonistically
* Many things change to enable constantcy in the body
* allostasis is a term that focuses more on things that change to enable homeostasis
27
how are physiological processes regulated
* Strategies for coping with changing environmental conditions fall into 2 categories
* Conformers - Allow internal conditions to change with external, they tolerate change
* Regulators - maintain relatively constant internal conditions regardless of external
-
* Stenothermic/stenohaline (tolerate narroe range of external conditions)
* Eurthermic/Euryhaline(Tolerate a white range of external conditions)
28
What are the different regulations of body temperature
Homeotherms - regular constant temperature
Naked mole rat regulate body temperatire by environment surrounding themselves
29
What are the different regulators of body temp
* Some animals have a big of stable and variable in space and time
* Spatial heterotherm - large bodied insectts, endothermic fish
* Temporal Heterotherm - Torpor in bats and humming birds
* fish has eye which generates heat it is spataial
* temporal is the bodt unifrom temperature but based on what they can do to raise of increase it. These differ with respec to time
30
How do energy demands distinguish modes of transport
* Passive transport is driven only by electrochemical graident of what is transported
* active transport - requires additional form of energy
* Primary active transport uses ATP
* secondary active transport uses another form of energy typically favourable graident of something else
31
How do steriods diffuse
* passive bc lipid soluble
* passive diffusion requires faciliated diffusion
* This is opening up a gateway
32
What are the pores and channels and carriers of facilitated diffusion
* Pores - aquaporin let some shit to fall. Non specific holes
* Channels - like pores but specificed to one substrate
* Carriers - hand off specific molecule from one side to another GLUT transporter
33
What are the different gated channels
Ligand gated ion - AcH in muscles and Ca in heart
V gated - in axon termini and muscle SL Na channels in axons and muscle SR K
Temperature gated - thermo TRP receptors in sjin
Mechanically gated - Ca Channels in skeletal muscle SR stretch receptors in wall
34
WHat is primary active transport
* All active transport use ATP pumps
* They are mechanoenzymes because they pumo stuff out
* ATP hydrolysis provides energy tp eject solute from cyto plasm against the graident
35
What is secondary active transport
* ELectrochemical gradient of one molecule drives the transport of another
* Exchangers move one into cell and another out of the cell
36
How is bulk materials transported
* Endocytosis/exocytosis
* Secretion of hydrophilic hormones involved endo membrane ysstem
37
Whata re the different categories of cell to cell communications
* Autocrine - cell sigs are similar cells in the vicinity
* paracine - cells signal different cell that is nearby
* Endocrine - cell signal a different cell far away
38
What are important chemical natures of molecules
* Water soluble cannot cross membranes
* water soluble hydrohillic
* hydrophobic can cross
39
What are soluble in water
* Purines - adenosine
* amines - catcholamines, dopeamine
* proteines and peptides - insulin glucagon
40
What are soluble in lipids
* Aromatic amino acid derivatives - thyroxines
* steroids
* fattu acid derivatives - prostoglandins
* gasses - NO
41
Why does chemistru matter in cell signalling
* lipophillics must leave and be used immedtaely
* Hydrophillics can be stored and used later
* lipphillic require trabscruption factors, they are aslow gradual release of cortisol
* hydrophillic are an explosive quick release like NorEpi
42
What is the cellular electohcem graident of K
Outward 28x graident for the ion
the inside is more negative
electrical graident offset the chemical graident which keeps K near equilibrium
43
what is cellular electrochem graident of Na
* inward chemical graident for Na - it is all outside 10x
* since inside is more negative that outsiude there is also inward electrical graident
* Both graidents draw Na into the cell
44
What is the equilibrium potentiall
* eahc ion has chemical component and eletcrical
* Both of these dirving forces for ion movements should the opportunity arise
* when ion spceicvi channels open the oon moves in direct determiend by sum of electrical and hemical graidents
* at these K concentrations Ek is -90mv
* is depolarizatiom K would move acorss membrane
* Ena of Na is 62mV
* if membrane potentai lwas -80 and channel was open Na would rish driven by both membrane poptrneial and griadent
45
What are the benfits of multicellularity
* lower surface area to volume ratios affect flux in and out
* efficient through division of labour
46
What are the 3 models of cellular specialization
* Aggregation of like cells
* Cells divide responsibilities for survival amongst each other
* Regions/ faces can become decicated to specific functions
47
What is the impact of a cell wall
* protists have external layer that is generally resistant to forming interactions with other cells
48
What are the benfits of multicellularity
* One genome different cell types
* specialization began as layers and polarity
* Layers permitted greater spatial complexity
* Permitted larger sizes but also increased the important of long distance signalling
49
How does 1 genome affect different cells
* Embryonic stem cells are omnipotent and capable of becoming any type of cell
* SIgnals cause omnipotent cells to commit to a particular type of cell lineage
* Indidivdual cell can differential turning on/off suites of genes to express a specific phenotype
50
How do cells become tissues then organs
* Coincident with cellular differentialtion is embryonic development
* These processes organogenesis and morphogenesis involve cell-cell vommunications
* Signals cytokines tell cell where to move and what to do when they get there
51
What is metamerization
* Segmentation
* metamers are repeating units that appear in embryonic development
* both morphology and a process
52
What is tagmatization
* Collection of segments in embryonic development that permit formation of complex structiures
* relics of segmentation are often seen
53
What is cephalization
* collection of tagmata that enables sensory and nervous processes to be concentrated towards anterior
54
What is the evolution of diveristy
* Many critical genes/proteins needed for things like cell-cell connections already existed in protists but are repurposed in multicellular ani,als
* Animal evolution trends include an increase in size, an increase in complexity, and increase in specialization, and regionalization
* A huge leap occured in vertebrates ocinciding with 2 whole genome duplications which provided the raw material for evolution
55
How are hormones transported
* hydrophillic dissolvedi n blood
* hydrophobic bind to carrier proteins that carry them
* albumin is a carrier
* they are called globulins
56
What are receptions
* Once hormone or ligand binds
* receptor experiences conformational change
* interaction is very specific
* Interaction depends on being a suitable receptor
* receptor antagonists have similar sturcture to ligands that they are able to bind to receptors
* agonist - does same recation has the same natural hormone
* antagonist - blocks the natural response
57
What are phytoestrogens
* many plants have estrogen like compounds
* intersex genetic male has consumed enough environmental estrogen to make it intersex and infertile
* males are low in estrogen. Feminisation of population removes reproductive males
58
What are the receptor types
* Hormones bind to receptors
* receptors are proteins
* When they are bound conformation shape
* AcH changes conforamtion to allow Na channel to open
59
What are transduction cascades and 2nd messenger systems
* when receptor bidns to ligand signalling cascade is intiated
* left signalling pathway is amplified at each step
* right signalling, firt messenger are like epi signals a G protein which causes a secondary messenger pathway
60
What are the antagonistic homrones
* Negative feedback controls
* Glucose is controlled by insulin and glucagon
* Insulin removes blood glucose
* Glucagon is opposiye
* Bind to different receptprs
* muscles are targetted by insulin
* fats and adipose at liver are targetted by glucagon
* Tropic - turns hormones which regulate levels of other hormones, usually jave it in their name
61
What is the hypothalamus and pituitary
* Endocrine glands secrete hormones to blood
* animals differe from where they are secreted
* prolactin involved in milk production for mammals and in fish it is ion-water balance
Hypo - sits below thaalmus, cell bodies in clusteres have axons that go to other regions of brain can also send axons to some tissues like luver ot the potuitary
posterior and anterior - compliation of 2 glands, collectional of terminate axons
hypothalamic neuorsns make thalamus and send secretions to posterior pituitary
they then release hormonesa nd send to rest of body
They have portal veins
62
What are the adrenal glands
* Cells prodcing cells differentiate within animals
* cluster in simpler animals
* Closer to each other in more complex organisms
* inside called the adrenal medulla secrete epinephrine
* adrenal cortex produces steriods
biol103
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