1
Q
what are the goals in life with no food or wayer
A
Prepare for worst - live in stressful environment then prepare for the worts
Ensure energy balance - store enough energy to ensure can cope with energy shortfalls, and use it as low as rate as possible
Protect the integrity of cells and tissues using both intracellular and extracellular strategies
2
Q
What is metabolic rate
A
- heat production
- O2 consumption
- CO2 prodcution
- water production
- ATP turover
3
Q
WHat is turnover
A
- when energy is in homeostaosos ATP production = rate of ATP consumption
- achieved by regulating enzymes that produce ATP to ensure they meed the rates by proteins that use ATP
4
Q
What is migration
A
- Many animals complete migrations without eating, instead relying on energy stores including themselves
5
Q
What do animals do when food is unpredictable
A
- Gorge themself when food is available then live without food for long periods
- SOmetiems they forgo food while they are pursing other activities such as incubating eggs
6
Q
Whata re adaptations to desert life
A
- Camels have have a hump which isa souce of lipid enerhu and produces some water during metabolism
- they can drink 1/3 of their body weight in 15 min
- they can tolerate hyperthermia and lose 30% of their body weight
- They RBCs can shrink or swell without damage
7
Q
WHat is the dormancy on homeotherms
A
- Can temporarily reduce MR and Tb
- SHort term = torpor
- long term = hibernation
8
Q
What is dormancy in poikilotherms
A
- Can reduce Mr
- cold = brumation
- Hot/dry = estivation
9
Q
How do animals prevent tissue degredation
A
- reduce mobtility
- however not using tissues causes degredation
- Snakes will permit gut to atrophy between feeding bouts and rebuild when they eat
- tetrapods are prone to muscle atrophy so those hibernate must find ways to reduce activation of proteolytic pathways
10
Q
What is metabokic arrest
A
- In this state they are resisyan to fod and water limitations
- These strategies are integrated with thermal biology and strategies differ for poikilotherms and homeotherms
11
Q
What are protective proteins
A
- Nematodes - late embryogensis abundant LEA proteins
- Tardigrades - damage suppressor, cytosolic abundant heat soluble proteins, secretor yabundant heat soluble proteins, mitochonridal abundnt heat soluble proteins
12
Q
What are respiratory and cardiovascular systems
A
- COmbination of one or more pumps and vessels to contain fluid that is moved around the body
- Circulatory fluid interacts with other etxracellular fluid indirectly accross a vessel wall
- carries respiratory gasses but also vital in ion and water balacnce, excretion, hormones, nutrient balance and others
13
Q
What are respiratory cardiovascular systems
A
- Interaction between cardiovascular systems and respiratory systems
- CR systems have vital roles in ion and water balance and other
- Design is often a reflection of cost/benefits of multiple systems constrained by basic anatomy and physiochemical limitations
14
Q
Explain tidal vs counter current flow
A
- In lungs gas enters airways and ends in bags
- Gas is exchanged acorss epithelail layer
- No directionality to blood flow
- in gulls blood flow runs through gills from front as water rins front to back over hills
- counter current exchange is much more efficent and allows fish to live in low oxygen environment
15
Q
How do insects seperate their cardio and respiratory system
A
- do not follow established rules
- blood does not carry oxygen
- O2 is delivered from tubes on cell walls
- when it is needed goes to invodual cells when theu open
- regulate O2 independent of blood
- cardiovascular system does not constrain their physical limits
16
Q
What are unconvebtual gas exchange tissues
A
- Frog uses loose skin to intake oxygen
- Unusual fish as in they breateh O2 from the surface and not the ewater
- they go to surface to take big breathe of air
17
Q
What are alternatives to the lung
A
- Another lineage uses its primative lungs and gills as a swim bladder
- They fill it with air and use it to remain boyant
- take seabass out too fast it exists by the mouth from the pressure
- some goldfish are sick and cant regulate their swimbaldder and they stay at the surface
Toadfish use the swim ballder as a drum to make sounds
SOme predatory fish got rid of it entirely because it is a disadvantage when chasing things and changing sea altitude frequently
18
Q
What are the different hemoglobin oxygen affinities
A
- hemo from feetus has higher affinity
- Feetus wants most of moms blood as possible
19
Q
What are the impacts of hypoxia and anoxia
A
- No oxygen limits aerobic ATP production
- shortfall must come from glycolisus, ATP and lactate
- glycolysis is inefficient u get 1/10 ATP from glucose is not avoiable
20
Q
When do animals face hypoxia
A
- environmental - animal cannot extra enough O2 from O2 poor environment
- Behavioural - when animal undertakes actuvies that limit access to O2
- Functional - Animal in normoxi environment doesnt deliver O2 to tissue to meet demands
21
Q
What are examples of environmental hypoxia
A
- High altitude
- Mussels on drainage systems when water flow stops they must close theur shell. Thye open again in water
22
Q
What are examples of behabioural hypoxia
A
- O2 stores and physiological changes permit animals to remain functionally normoxi most about making use of oxygen stores rather than hypoxic metabolism
23
Q
What is functional hypoxia
A
- Many animals use muscles intensive would be hopeless to rely on opxidative metabolism
- No amount og O2 delivery could meet ATP demands so these strategies about O2 indepdent metabolism
- brain tissues under hypoxia died when re-exposed to O2 it did not help
24
Q
How do animals survive hypoxia
A
- Maximize uptake and storage of oxygen
- Store lots of glycogen
- Produce tolerable end products
- Reduce demand
25
What are global sources of salination
* Natural - weathering rocks evaporation
* Human accellerated like road salt, sewage, agriculture, minning etc
* salts then get released into the environment
* results in it flowing into lakes
26
How does salt defree
* Lowers the freezing point of water
27
How os freshwater fish osmoregulated
* Hyper regulators - maintain higher concentration of ions in their bodies than external environment
* Continual loss of salts and influx of water
* Need to actively transport Ions into body and excrete water
* fresh fish have high ceoncentration of solutes in their body so salts diffuse out and water diffuses in
* this is how they get rid of salt in their body
28
How are ions regulated
* Occurs primarily epipodites
* ion transporting epithelia have abundnace mitochondria
* Diffusion and active transport of ions
* salt messes up ion regulations
* filtering apendages are used for filtering ion exhcnage and respiration
* Various places where lot of ion transport
* they have mitochonrida these areas because ion transport is very expebsive
29
What happens in salinity changes
* Increase activity of Na K ATPase and active pumps
* Increased metabolic activity to fuel pumps
* Mitochrondia prproduces reactive oxyegn species because of electron leakgae in electron transport chain
30
What are the effects on individual survobal and reproduction
* Survival rate decreases significantly when exposed to salt
* also not very early in reproductiveness
* Big impacts on survival because it impacts the organisms survival abd reproductiveness
31
What do humans use to make idgestion more efficent
* Endosymbionts living in the gut make this possible
* This model however may fail since they can live in tissues instead of guts sometimes
32
What are some exceptions to the endosymbiont mode l
* Some animals do not hav a gut and rely soley on endosymbionts to digest food
*
33
What animals eat things from the environment to incorporate into food
* Corals eat protists
* Coral protects protisy in exchange it takes nutrients it makes
Faltwoarms are gree nbecasue they have chloroplasts. It doesnt have any but eats them from plants and uses them in its body
34
What happens when animals eat weird things
* Most animals eat undgivestible carbs and rely on enterosymbionts
* A few animals have acquired genes to obtain enzymes that can break down cellulose and chitin
Fogs and whales - eat a lot of food and have an enzyme to digest the materal. Ani,al takes it glucose tweaking enzyme to change animals
Bacteria - many animals have bacteri that plasy a role as an enterosymbiont but some animals farm bacteri and harvest them as food using lysozyme to break them down
Mst skin cells secrete lysozymes from it that allows it to work in harash environments of the gut
35
Give an overview on the gut microbiome
* Mammals have a complex gut
* Bacteria balancing nutriotion with immune function, and broader implications for other systems
* Gut ecosystem changes with age and health
* It is not always clear whether gut changes cause or coreelate with effects of physiological systems
* epithelial cells connected with tight junctions
36
What is an evoluionary perspective of the gut microbiome
* AS animal evolved so has digestive tract
* specialized secretions
* specialized cells
* specialized tissues
* Specialized regions of the gut
* Complex regulation to coordinate responses to hunger and progression of digestion
* Plasticity to modify individual gut, coordinate with life-history stages, migrations and reproduction
* complex guts have different nutrients, functions and brain functions to control the ability
* SOme ani,als have different needs at different times
37
Wxplain the evolution of blind sacs
* Most simple digestive tract is the blind sac
* Hydrage brings food into its cavity and bonbards it with chemicals to absorbs nutrients then spits it out
38
Explain unidirectionality
* CLoudina
* first thing to develop segmentation
* One way gut
* Different segments do different things
* Mouth brings food in
* leaves throigh anus
* beaks teeth tongues muscles break the food down physically
* Changes in pH are common where a stomach breaks down basic material
* Allows the gut to work at different stages
Specilzation - Humming birds have samller digestive system bc it doesnt eat much. Hunting birds have longer to store more meals, Vegetarian birds have the longest because they need a long amount of time to extract nutrients from plants
39
What are fermentation chambers
* Food is ground by teeth then sent to fermentation
* bacteria breaks down cellulose
* Slurry regurgitated, rechewed and sent to omasum for further processing
* where bacteriab reaks down cellulose
40
Wxplain regionalization
* Different types of nutrients are broken down into different parts of thegut
* because tissues are specialized in that area to break down certina material
* carbs a bit broken in mouth, allows body to recognize glucose in on the way not much happens in stomach then intestines break it down
41
What is cellular specilization for digestive physiology
* Cheif cells secreye pepsinogen and pariteal cells secrete acid
* Endocrine cells secrete hormones taht food is coming
* mucus neck cells secrete mucus to protect gut
* Many immune cells patrol gut
* muscle cell important for digestion and communicate wiht hypothalamus
42
How does it feed energetic needs
* When eating
* controls hunger
* when adipose is full of fate, tells brains to inhibit hunger
* When colon is full, distension releases PYY peptide and goes to the same region of the brain and triggers a stiety message
* Pancrease releases insulin
When stomach is hungry, secretes ghrelin signalling that you are hungry
* Many animals think about being hungry dependent on their needs
43
Explain tissue function wtih glucose homeostasis
* Migration is expensive for animals
* birds ignore hunger centers when they are full and continue eating
* bird weill get so fat it will have trouble getting off the ground some times
44
describe tonicity
* Described as the area around the cell
* Hypotonicity causes cell to swell since no water outside
* Hyper causes cell to shrink since too much water outside
45
What is the important of cell volume regulation
* All cells have to be held together properly
* eat too many chips salt will increase in ECF and be hypertonic tp cells and cause shrink as water leaves
* they will then tear junctions
* drink too much cells will swell and block flow of blood
46
What are some terms for aquatic animals
Intertidal - experience rapid changes in osmolarity
Eustarine animals move from seawater to freshwater
Ephemeral waterbodies can dry to nothing
47
What is the difference between salt water and fresh water fish
* Prettu much what they get rid
* Fresh water get rid of water and take up ions
* Salt get rid of ions and take up water
48
What is the history and stages of osmoregulation
* Salmon is an example
* many animals change their regulatory systems in response to environmental changes
* salmon life begins in feshwater but homronal changes cause remodelling of epithelial system to prepare for migration into seawater
* gills, kidneys, intestine convert from oion collectors into excretors
49
Explain the transport epithelia
* Move ion in and out of the cell
* can be hills
* lungs kidneys
* polartity to transporters
* tight junctions
* diverse cell types
* abundanmce in mitochrondria as transporters require energy
50
What are the oldest version of specialized tissues and organs
* Flame cell
* found in flatworms
* one cell wraps around to create a tubulke
* another makes a flagella that create current of fluids into tubule
* move in and get collected then excreted
51
What are malphigian tubules
* Long blunt ended tubules that connect to the gut
* collect ions form ECF and shoot them out through ass
* Insec has abundance of water and excretes water while it feeds
* allows it to concentrate blood into protein meal
52
Describe the regulation of water balance
* If body has too much water
* excretes water
* too much salt removes the salt
* multiple feedbacks determine this
* solid cosumption too high causes osmolarity to increases which causes cells ot shrink which is bad
* too much water causes osmolarity to decreases
* when osmoalrity is too high, hypothalamus signals secretion of anitduretic hormone
* Increase water absorption in the collecting duct
* This restores the normal blood osmolarity
* Hypothalamuc sends signals to thirst centers to signal water is needed
* if this is high from too much salt
* signals kidney t oremove salt from body
53
What is the renin angiotensin aldosterone system
* Cells around the glomerulus sense low MAP and release renin
* Activates the angiotensin pathways
* Causes vbasoconstriction and triggers release of aldosterone form the cortex
* aldosterone ehances salt and water recovery
54
What are the origins of cardiorespiratory physiology
* Plcaozoans very simpe get enough gas from skind
* sponges - work by themself dont need any structures
* tissues - eventually were specialized tissues that develop no fluid so no need for material to flow through as in a cardio system
* Movement of fkuids - eventually cardio system developped. These are here to allow for internal transport
55
What do the capilalry spinchters do
* opena nd close gates for blood into the caps
* close and pas s through throughfare channel
* spinchter can close in response to preventing ehat loss when you are clod
* Can also open up to allow gas exchange on a wider level
* COntrolled by hypothalamus which determine if its needed and local effectors
* if this was a muscle, muscle cells and tissues woukld be engulfed by capillaries. They communicate through intersitual fluid
56
What are cell to cell interactions
* Tight junctions at the top
* if tissue is damaged bacteria and material acan go through the cell into the basolateral membrane and into intertial fluid
* WBC will slip between cells of endotheliu, and force them to fix the disturbance
57
What does the intersitial fluid do in this context
* COntrolls diffusion
* Intestinal cells have microvilli
* tight junctions prevent material from leaking bwteen cells
58
What are the capilalaries and lymphatics
* when capillary bed runs through intersitual, bend it leaks into the sapce
* some cells collect the fluids that leak from the beds
* These are lymphatic vessels
* collects and brings back to the lymph nodes
59
What are open and closed systems
* Open - tend to be inneficent on basic level
* small animals have them and have high metabolic rates
* insecets seperate their cardio and respiratory. The cardio systems are just for hormones and extra nutrients and the respiratory goes directly to cells
CLosed - blood never supposed to leave bessels
Segmentation allwoed for cardio sustems
At different segments there are specilaized cells that generate pressire, these are heart s
No capillaries because it before gas exchange with the skin for worm
60
What are the origins of multichambered hearts
* Blood leaves left ventricle
* goes to systemic circulation - must be strong enough to pump it to the brain and to the feet
* left ventricle needs to generate strong pressure so it is more musculkarized
* right ventricle has small amount as it only sends blood to the lungs
61
What are the pressures and flow
* Systolic - when heart is contracting - highest pressure
* Disatolic - when heart is not contracting
* mean arterial is calulcated with systokic waited 2x less than diatolic because heart is usually in systolic
62
describe inate abd adaptive immunity
* Innate - barrier defeence like mucous membrane secretions
* Internal defences like phagocytic cells, natural killers anitmicrobial proteins and inflammtion
Adaptive - Humoiral response, antibodies defende against infection
Cell mediated response cyototix cells defend
63
What is the specificty
* Receptors bind macromolecules fro ma cell/virus it wants to target
* patter recognition receptors are what find the cells
* They are adaptive, Instead of looking for patterns they look for very spefici molecular patterns like nucleotides. Most familiar is an antibody - floats looking for its partner and antigen
64
Describe innate immunity
* Always on stadnby
* immedeiate defence
* immune cells recognzie antigens and releease histamine in blood alerts immune bodies there is a pthogen
* IF damage is greate blood builds up called inflammation to warm the area.
* allows luids to leakd oit pf body
65
What are the innate i,,ume cells
* Phagocytes - find bacteria and eats it
* natural killer cells - destroy cells infected with virys, destroy foreign or altered cells like tumours, similar cytptoxic T cells, do not require antigens
66
What is phagocytosis
* Scan surrounding cells for receptors
* patter nreceptors
* These bind to targets
* if it finds the fight one it binds to the organism and brings it in for food
67
What is inflammation
* Innate immune system kicks in and tries to fight
* Most cells release histamine
* Macrophage release signalling factors into blood
* allows blood to leak to low pressure areas
* warmer areas
* These all result in the 5 signs of inflammation, Fluid leak, redness, swelling, warmining and oss of feeling
* Local hypothermia - can activate immune response
68
What is behavioural fever
* Ectotherms use behavioura to increase body temperature t ocope with bacterial infections. Lizard when ifnected move to sun to combat infection
69
What are granulocytes
* 3 blood cells called by the name because they all release contents when they ineract with their condition
* neutrophils - bind to neutral dye
* basophils - basic dye
* Eosinphils - acidic dye
* part of the innate immune system
* Macrophages and ddenritic cells
* dendrictic cells take fragments of pathogens and use them for adaptive immune system
70
What is an antigen presenting cell
* Dendrict cells
* absorb antigen into fragments
* Then advertise presence to other cells
* to histocatamine receptor
* HCM expands the ligan to rest of the world
71
What are lymphocytes
* Bind to a signal motif
* A singula nucloetide structure
* Proteins of these genes are connected by difsulfie bonds
* Some cells secrete same receptor that floats feely in the body
* Used to find very speiffic molecualr bindinh thing
* collection of cells has the ability to bind to a collection of pattersn
72
How is diveristy generated in B and T cells
* When cells become more specialized they alter their genome
* V domain is encoded by V region and J region
* undergoes recombination that getting rid of random V and C
* eventually sequence will be recognized by a receptor and will bind
* there is a spanning genetic variation
* incoroptates heavy gene
* ends up with different amoiunt of receptors that bind to every kind of possible sequence
* This purifying process is called self tolerance
* Overtime B and T cells have adapted to not be killed by receptor. The receptor is always looking for somethinb that is not normally in the body
73
What is B and T cell activation
* when antigen binds to receptor
* troggers events
* colonal activation
* causes signalling cascade that causes duplication of itself
* makes more of the same cell
* memory B cells will stau and wait until the same infection happens again
* activated T cells can be helper or cytotoxic
* cytotocu bind to infect cells and kill the cells
* adaptive bc the immune sustem can chaneg itself
* B and T cells are memory cells
* allow body to react faster
* vaccines work off of thus
* mRNA cells also exist and make the body create and antigen
74
What are helper T cells
* Cells that advertise theur protein on the surface
* For immune system to insoect
* Antigen displayed on the hist cell will cause it to become helper T cell or a cytotoxic cell
* when pathogen appears it gets eaten by phagocytes adn advertises the pathogen on its surface
*
75
What are cytotoxic T cells
* Binding event causes a release of protein that pokes holes in the cells
76
What is an allergic reaction
* When body signals response to pathogen that is way out of propertion
* Sensitzation - macorphages ingest allergen then display proteins on surface B differentiate and produce p;;em specific antibodies bound by mast cells
* re-exposure - mast cells bind to the allergen and release histamine or other molecules causeing inflamtion and allergy symptoms in severe cases
* Vasodillation and bronchocontriction - reserved by epinephrine
biol103
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