What are the three stages of information processing?
Input (through senses), encoding (storing info in electrochemical memory trace), and output (retrieval of memory)
What are the three main types of encoding?
Acoustic encoding, visual encoding, and semantic encoding (meaning of information)
What are the characteristics of short-term memory?
Duration: 18secs, rehearsed info for minutes (may be transferred to long term)
Capacity: 7 items
Forgetting: Displacement
What are the characteristics of long-term memory?
Duration: Minutes to lifetime
Capacity: Unlimited
Forgetting: Memory decay, interference, retrieval failure
What are the different types of forgetting?
- Displacement (capacity exceeded, new info pushes out old)
- Memory decay (trace eroded over time)
- Interference (trace over-written with new info)
- Retrieval failure (memory cannot be found)
Define amnesia
Memory loss due to accident, disease or injury
What are the characteristics of anterograde amnesia?
- Unable to form new long term memories
- Long term memories before damage retained
What are the characteristics of retrograde amnesia?
- Cannot recall memories before damage
- Can be specific memory, time frame, or whole identity
- Possible to regain memories
Describe Bartlett’s (1932) Theory of Reconstructive Memory
- Active reconstruction: memories as notes, upon recall details filled in with schemas
- Schemas: an expectation, influences perspective, built up over life through personal experiences
- Recall displays FORT (familiarisation, omission, rationalisation, transformation)
Explain the ways Bartlett’s theory describes the reconstruction of recalled memories
FORT:
- Familiarisation: changing unfamiliar details to align with schema
- Omission: unfamiliar, irrelevant or unpleasant details omitted/simplified
- Rationalisation: details added to make sense of details that did not fit with a schema
- Transformations: details changed to make them more familiar/rational
Give strengths of Bartlett’s (1932) Theory of Reconstructive Memory
- Practical applications: eye witnesses to crime given cognitive interview (designed to avoid omissions/transformations)
- Ecologically valid (study done on real uses of memory)
Give weaknesses of Bartlett’s (1932) Theory of Reconstructive Memory
- Findings subjective (Bartlett’s own interpretations), therefore unscientific
Describe Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1968) Multi-Store Model of Memory
- Sensory register: held for <1sec, put into short-term if payed attention to
- Short-term: Stored for 15-30secs (maintained longer if rehearsed), modality-free (not linked to senses), only transferred to long-term if rehearsed
- Long-term: held indefinitely, potentially unlimited capacity, organised semantically
Give evidence of Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1968) Multi-Store Model of Memory
Evidence:
- Amnesia (retrograde/anterograde difference)
- Murdock’s (1962) study - found words at beginning & end of list remembered more than middle
Give weaknesses of Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1968) Multi-Store Model of Memory
- Overstating role of rehearsal (non-rehearsed meaningful info still recalled)
- More than one type of long-term memory (events vs skils)
Give the aims of Bartlett’s (1932) War of the Ghosts study
Test the nature of reconstructive memory using an unfamiliar story, see if schemas influence recall
Describe the procedure of Bartlett’s (1932) War of the Ghosts study
- Participants asked to read unfamiliar ‘War of the Ghosts’ story twice
- Serial reproduction: retell story to another participant 15-30mins after reading, other participant tells it to another and so on
- Repeated reproduction: participant writes out story after 15mins, then asked to recall minutes, hours, days or years later
Describe the results of Bartlett’s (1932) War of the Ghosts study
- Repeated reproductions followed the same outline as first
- Both types: participants made connections/gave reasons for events (rationalisation)
- Unfamiliar/unpleasant parts omitted, details/words familiarised
Give the conclusions of Bartlett’s (1932) War of the Ghosts study
- Bartlett interpreted results as evidence for constructive memory
- Details omitted/familiarised to fit in with schema
Give strengths of Bartlett’s (1932) War of the Ghosts study
- Ecological validity: story used (natural use of memory)
- Reliable: study repeated with other stories/pictures, participants still changed details
- Qualitative analysis used
Give weaknesses of Bartlett’s (1932) War of the Ghosts study
- Unrealistic: unfamiliar story, was illogical
- Unscientific: qualitative analysis, bias from interpretations
- Lacked standardised procedure
Give the aims of Peterson and Peterson’s (1959) Short-term Retention study
To test the true duration of short-term memory
Describe the procedure of Peterson and Peterson’s (1959) Short-term Retention study
- Asked to say a trigram (series of three letters)
- Immediately asked to count back in threes from a three digit number to prevent rehearsal
- Signalled to recall trigram 3, 6, 9, 12, and 18 seconds after seeing it
Describe the results of Peterson and Peterson’s (1959) Short-term Retention study
- The longer the time delay, the less was remembered
- 3 seconds - greater than 80% remembered
- 18 seconds - less than 10% remembered
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Module 1: Development25
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Module 2: Memory29
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Module 3: Psychological Problems55
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Module 4: The Brain and Neuropsychology38
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Module 5: Social Influence27
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Module 6: Research Methods35
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Module 7: Criminal Psychology34
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Module 8: Sleep and Dreaming36
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Studies & Theories20
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Studies & Theories (REVERSED)20
