Module 6: Research Methods

Question 1

What are the different types of variables?

Answer 1

• Independent variable (IV), is changed to investigate its effect
• Dependent variable (DV), is changed by IV and measured
• Extraneous variables, not controlled:
• Situational (e.g. order effects, environment, demand characteristics)
• Participant (e.g. mood, physical ability)

Question 2

How can situational variables be controlled?

Answer 2

• Standardised procedure
• Counterbalancing
• Randomisation
• Counter-blind technique (nobody knows aims, including researchers)

Question 3

How can participant variables be controlled?

Answer 3

• Use same/similar participants
• Random allocation

Question 4

What are the different types of hypothesis?

Answer 4

• Null: results will show no non-coincidental relationship/difference
• Alternative: prediction based on a theory
• Directional: predicts direction only
• Non-directional: predicts a relationship/difference but no specified direction
• Experimental: hypotheses in field/lab experiments

Question 5

What are the different methods of sampling?

Answer 5

Random, stratified, volunteer, opportunity

Question 6

Explain the random sampling technique

Answer 6

• Equal chance
• Controls participant variables
• Some may refuse to participate, so less representative

Question 7

Explain the stratified sampling technique

Answer 7

• Accurate proportions of subgroups
• Used if small group may be missed
• Time consuming
• Some may refuse to participate, so less representative

Question 8

Explain the volunteer sampling technique

Answer 8

• Advertise study, people volunteer
• Minimal effort, most ethical
• Less representative
• Biased sample, unreliable

Question 9

Explain the opportunity sampling technique

Answer 9

• Whoever happens to be around
• Quickest & simplest
• Biased sample, unreliable

Question 10

What are the different research and experimental designs?

Answer 10

• Independent measures design
• Repeated measures design
• Matched pairs design

Question 11

Explain the independent measures design

Answer 11

• Split participants into groups, each group tested in one condition
• No order effects
• More participants needed, may be participant variables

Question 12

Explain the repeated measures design

Answer 12

• Use same participants in all conditions
• Fewer participants needed, no participant variables
• Demand characteristics/order effects

Question 13

Explain the matched pairs design

Answer 13

• Different people in each condition, match them for likeness
• Fair comparisons between groups
• Time consuming
• Not everything can be equally matched

Question 14

What is reliability?

Answer 14

The consistency of an investigation’s results

Question 15

What is validity?

Answer 15

• Internal: whether the investigation measures what was intended
• External: whether the results are generalisable to the target population

Question 16

Explain qualitative methods

Answer 16

• Gather new information to base theories on
• Hard to replicate
• Restricted to individuals
• Researcher bias/investigator effects

Question 17

Explain quantitative methods

Answer 17

• Start with a hypothesis, test a theory
• Standardised procedure
• Generalisable
• More objective

Question 18

Describe the British Psychological Society Code of Human Research Ethics (2014)

Answer 18

• Respect the autonomy, privacy and dignity of participants
• Scientific integrity (don’t claim misleading/false findings)
• Social responsibility (must have value to society)
• Maximise benefit and minimise harm

Question 19

What are the five main ethical principles when conducting studies?

Answer 19

• Informed consent
• Deception (sometimes needed, debrief ASAP)
• Right to withdraw (REQUIRED)
• Protection from physical and psychological harm
• Confidentiality (details destroyed upon request)

Question 20

Explain the three types of experiments

Answer 20

• Laboratory: controlled environment, extraneous variables eliminated
• Field: natural environment, IV manipulated, not as much control
• Natural: real-life environment, IV not manipulated (occurs naturally), opportunistic

Question 21

Explain the three types of interview (and the traits of interviews in general)

Answer 21

• Structured: pre-set questions, quick, interviewer training not required, superficial info
• Semi-structured: framework but open questions, in-depth info, takes time & trained interviewers
• Unstructured: most in-depth, takes time & trained interviewers, impossible to replicate
• (Non-experimental, subject to social desirability bias and interviewer characteristics)

Question 22

Explain questionnaires and their strengths & weaknesses

Answer 22

• Close-ended (pre-set answers) or open-ended (free prose answers)
• Good for large samples, ethical, no interviewer effect, (close easy to analyse, open more detailed)
• Low response rate (close lacks detail, open hard to analyse)

Question 23

Explain correlation and its strengths & weaknesses

Answer 23

• Looking for relationship (positive or negative) between variables
• Cheaper/quicker than experiments, used where experiments would be unethical
• Cause and effect cannot be determined

Question 24

Explain case studies and their strengths & weaknesses

Answer 24

• In-depth investigation into one person/group
• Research what would be unethical to set up experimentally
• Cannot be repeated, lacks generalisability, subject to researcher bias

Question 25

Explain the different types of observation

Answer 25

- Naturalistic: natural environment, normal behaviour - Controlled/structured: laboratory, encourages observed behaviour - Overt: participants aware of observation - Covert: participants unaware of observation - Participant: observer is involved in the group they are observing

Question 26

What are the strengths and weaknesses of observation

Answer 26

- Strengths: reliability checked with inter-rater reliability (separate observers, cross-examine results) - Weaknesses: observers must be trained, observer bias, ethical issues (covert)

Question 27

Explain primary and secondary data

Answer 27

- Primary: collected directly for specific research purpose (expensive/time consuming) - Secondary: previously collected for another study, often for different purpose (cheaper/larger sample size)

Question 28

Explain qualitative and quantitative data

Answer 28

- Qualitative: descriptive/hard to measure numerically - Quantitative: numerical data, can be subjected to statistics/testing

Question 29

Describe ethical issues in relation to development

Answer 29

- UNCRC (children's rights): - Participation - experimented WITH, not ON - Protected from harm at all times

Question 30

Describe ethical issues in relation to memory

Answer 30

- Deceit & informed consent - Seen as ethical with a careful debrief

Question 31

Describe ethical issues in relation to psychological problems

Answer 31

- Research helps people (cost/benefit) - Control group ('waiting list'), only receive therapy is proved effective - Protection of participants - Genes: can't be changed, problems found may only lead to stress

Question 32

Describe ethical issues in relation to the brain and neuropsychology

Answer 32

- Brain damage patients vulnerable (protection) - Treatment should always take priority over research - Nature/nurture - criminal responsibility - Social value of results

Question 33

Describe ethical issues in relation to social influence

Answer 33

- Participants must be protected from knowing how far they might go (Milgram 1963, Haney et al. 1973) - Milgram did not expect the results he found

Question 34

Explain the risk-benefit viewpoint in regards to ethics

Answer 34

- Balance harm to participants with benefit to society - Deception justified if: right to withdraw clear, full debrief, benefit outweighs harm, and harm is temporary

Question 35

Describe ethics committees

Answer 35

- Research proposals MUST be approved by an ethics committee - Concerns --> escalated to university committee (most research done in universities) - Older studies had guidelines, but didn't require scrutiny