2 Grammar Conventions
Pragmatic and Semantics
Pragmatic
Pragmatics refers to the social rules of language.
pragmatics focuses on the social context of these words, phrases, sentences, and larger chunks of discourse.
Pragmatics involves the learning and understanding of the proper use of registers.
You need to be able to adjust your language based on different situations (i.e., formal vs. informal).
In pragmatics, the keyword is “context, context, context.”
Semantics
Semantics refers to the meaning of words and the relationship between words. Semantics is what attaches meaning to the sentence and ensures it makes sense.
Semantics focuses on the actual (literal) meaning of words, phrases, sentences, and discourse samples.
An example of semantics is figurative language, in which words are not taken literally but have a deeper meaning.
Semantics studies how utterances are inferred and implied. The correct vocab word that fits in a sentence.
Syntax definition and 3 basic rules
Definition: Syntax refers to the rules that create the structure of sentences.
- Complete sentences are made of subjects and predicates.
- The subject contains a noun or pronoun.
- The predicate contains a verb/action.
The rules of ______ and ______ _______ create meaning within sentences, and by knowing these rules, you can use your knowledge to help with both word identification and word meaning.
grammar
word order
Subject Verb Inversion
Most sentences are written with the subject first, followed by the verb. When the two are inverted, the verb comes before the subject. This is often used to add emphasis to the statement.
Example:
I have never seen such a beautiful flower → Never have I seen such a beautiful flower.
7 Writing Convention and Grammar Terms
- Subject Verb Agreement
- Capitalization
- Fragment
- Comma Splice
- Run on Sentence
- Phrases
- Misplaced Modifiers
Subject Verb Agreement
Definition: A verb must agree with its subject in person and number.
Examples:
The kangaroo jumps. (singular)
The kangaroos jump. (plural)
Capitalization
Capitals are used as signals with 3 purposes: to let the reader know a sentence is beginning, to show essential words in a title, and to signal proper names and official titles.
Fragments
Definition: Anything that is not a complete sentence that has end punctuation. Incomplete sentences that need to add a subject or a predicate.
Example:
Fragment: Walking through the woods.
Sentence: She was walking through the woods.
If your fragment is a dependent clause, remove the subordinating conjunction or attach it to an independent clause.
Fragment: While she was walking through the snowy woods to her grandmother’s farmhouse.
Sentence: She walked through the snowy woods to her grandmother’s farmhouse.
Coma Splice
Definition: A comma splice occurs when two independent clauses are joined incorrectly with just a comma instead of a coordinating conjunction, semicolon, or period.
Example:
I went to the store, I bought some milk.
She loves reading, her favorite book is “Pride and Prejudice.”
Ways to Correct a Comma Splice:
I went to the store, and I bought some milk. (Add a coordinating conjunction)
I went to the store; I bought some milk. (Use a semicolon)
I went to the store. I bought some milk. (Use a period)
Run on Sentences
Definition: Two or more independent clauses have been put together but are not properly connected. It can also be referred to as a fused sentence.
Ex. I was reading the newspaper and I noticed the article.
3 ways to corrrect:
1. Add a comma and a coordinating conjunction
I was reading the newspaper, and I noticed the article.
- Add a semicolon if the sentences are very closely related
I was reading the newspaper; I noticed the article.
- Break up the clauses into two complete sentences
I was reading the newspaper. I noticed the article.
Phrases
Definition: A phrase is a group of words that only includes a subject or an action (predicate). It is an incomplete thought and only part of a sentence. 3 main types see below
Example:
My lovely Aunt Irma may have been traveling to Las Vegas.
Noun Phrase: My lovely Aunt Irma
Verb Phrase: May have been traveling
Prepositional phrase: To Las Vegas
Misplaced Modifiers
Definition: A misplaced modifier is a word, phrase, or clause improperly separated from the word it modifies/describes.
Example: The suspects were interviewed right after the crime was committed by the detectives.
Corrected: The detectives interviewed the suspects right after the crime was committed.
_________ - ________ensures that the subject and verb in a sentence match in terms of number.
______________ ___________ _________ and ____-__-_____________ helps maintain proper sentence structure and coherence.
__________ _________ and ________ ________ and ________improves coherence by selecting precise and appropriate language.
subject-verb agreement
Identifying sentence fragments and run-on sentences
Replacing imprecise and inappropriate words and phrases
Standard use of verb forms
Verb forms convey the time, continuity, and condition of actions and the relationships between subjects and objects in a sentence.
3 main ones:
Past, present and future
Standard use of pronouns
Pronouns are used to replace nouns, reducing repetition and adding fluency to sentences.
The different types of pronouns are:
Personal pronouns (e.g., I, you, he, she, it)
Possessive pronouns (e.g., mine, yours, his, hers, its)
Reflexive pronouns (e.g., myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself).
________ _______ _______occur when a pronoun lacks a clear antecedent, making the sentence ambiguous (e.g., When Sarah and Lisa arrived, she was excited—who is “she”?). _______ __ ________ _______ _______ and _________happens when a singular antecedent is incorrectly paired with a plural pronoun (e.g., Each student must bring their book—”each student” is singular, but “their” is plural; use “his or her” instead). __________ ______ in _______ ________ and _________create inconsistency in writing (e.g., If one studies hard, you will succeed—”one” is third person, but “you” is second person; revise to If one studies hard, one will succeed).
vague pronoun references
Lack of agreement between pronouns and antecedents
Incorrect shifts in pronoun person and number
Standard use of adverb forms
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, providing information about the manner, degree, time, place, or frequency of an action or quality. They help to answer questions such as “how,” “when,” “where,” “to what extent,” or “how often.”
Adverbs often end in “-ly,” but not always.
Standard use of adjectives
Adjectives are words that modify or describe the qualities, characteristics, or attributes of a person, place, thing, or idea. Adjectives can describe various aspects such as size, color, shape, texture, age, origin, material, or emotional state. Need to agree with noun- Example:
Singular noun (masculine): The tall man
Plural noun (masculine): The tall men
Standard use of superlatives
Superlatives
Superlatives indicate superiority or the most extreme level of a particular characteristic.
Superlatives are used when comparing three or more items or individuals.
They often end in “-est” (e.g., tallest, fastest, smartest) and are preceded by the definite article “the.” Also can contain very or extremely
Standard use of comparatives
Comparatives enable us to describe variations in size, quantity, speed, intelligence, or any other measurable or comparable aspect.
Comparatives are formed by adding “-er” to the adjective or by using the words “more” or “less” before the adjective.
Comparatives are often followed by the preposition “than” to introduce the second element being compared.
Standard use of possessives
The standard use of possessives indicates ownership or possession of an object, person, or concept.
Possessives are formed by adding an apostrophe (‘) and sometimes an additional “s” to nouns.
Singular nouns: the apostrophe is usually placed before the “s” (e.g., John’s book)
Plural nouns: ending in “s,” the apostrophe is placed after the “s” (e.g., the students’ desks).
When the noun is plural and does not end in “s,” the apostrophe is placed before the “s” (e.g., the children’s toys).
It is important to note that possessives are distinct from contractions, which combine words and indicate missing letters, such as “it’s” (contraction for “it is”) or “can’t” (contraction for “cannot”).
Standard use of punctuation
Punctuation marks serve different purposes and guide readers in understanding a sentence’s intended structure and flow. Some key punctuation marks include:
Period, comma, Question mark, exclamation point, colon, semicolon, quotation marks, apostrophe
